Muisca Confederations (political units)

Muisca Confederations were loose confederations of different Muisca chiefdoms in the Eastern Andean highlands of what is today Colombia before the Spanish conquest of northern South America. These unions, centred around main chiefdoms recognised by smaller ones, were not a single, even loose, muisca confederation of chiefdoms, but multiple, independent regional entities. The area, presently called Altiplano Cundiboyacense, comprised the current departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and minor parts of Santander.
Usually, Muisca chiefdoms were composed of various basic matrilineal units called capitanías by the Spaniards. However, power was based on individual alliances of Muisca rulers with households or basic units. Often, sibyn were villages and uta groups of houses. Four confederations of chiefdoms formed in Muisca territory: Bogotá, Tunja, Duitama and Sogamoso. Additionally, the Chibcha-speaking Guane and Lache were also ruled by the confederation of Guanentá and the confederation of El Cocuy respectively. Different models exist to explain the nature of power among Muisca elites.

Muisca Confederations

The Muiscas lived in the Andes Orientales in a territory of approximately 22.000. At the time of the Spanish Conquest, four confederations existed in their territory. According to colonial documents, the confederations of Sogamoso and Duitama were independent of Tunja and had great importance. Political power was not based on economic or political subordination but recognition of certain authorities, sometimes multiple at a time. The size of muisca population remains debated. The most powerful chiefdom at the time of the Spanish conquest was Bogotá. Additionally, there were independant chiefdoms in the north-west, not affilitiated to any confederation.
Muisca settlements were organised around the cacique's enclosure or cercado. Roads were present to connect the settlements with each other and with the surrounding indigenous groups, of which the Guane and Lache to the north, the Panche and Muzo to the west and Guayupe, Achagua and Tegua to the east were the most important.

History

Prehistory

Early Amerindian settlers led a hunter-gatherer life among still extant megafauna living in cool habitats around Pleistocene lakes, of which the humedales in Bogotá, Lake Suesca, Lake Fúquene and Lake Herrera are notable examples. Multiple evidences of late Pleistocene to middle Holocene population of the Bogotá savanna, the high plateau in the Colombian Andes, have been found to date. As is common with caves and rock shelters, Tequendama was inhabited from around 11,000 years BP, and continuing into the prehistorical, Herrera and Muisca periods, making it the oldest site of Colombia, together with El Abra, located north of Zipaquirá and Tibitó, located within the boundaries of Tocancipá. The oldest human remains and the oldest complete skeleton were discovered at Tequendama and has been named "Hombre del Tequendama" or Homo Tequendama. Other artefacts have been found in Gachalá, Sueva and Zipacón. Just west of the Altiplano, the oldest archaeological remains were found; in Pubenza, part of Tocaima and have been dated at 16,000 years Before Present.

Pre-Columbian era

Herrera Period

The Herrera Period is a historical period named after the La Herrera lake, south of Bogotá, it took place approximately between 800 BCE to 800 AD. However, current academic consensus considers the period to have ranged from 400 B.C. to 1000 A.D., with regional variations. The muisca arrival to the Altiplano Cundibyacense most likely pre-dated the beginning of the Herrera period. However, the exact date of their arrival is unknown, and the least oldest date would be the middle of the first millennium B.C.
Generally, the Herrera period is characterized by agriculture, ceramic traditions and the use of salt sources. The political organisation and level of social complexity during the Herrera period is uncertain.

Muisca

The period named "Muisca" is separated by scholars into "early muisca" and "late muisca". This period is associated with the rise of muisca chiefdoms. Through the construction of monolithic structures, elites acquired an ideological more than a direct economic control. The reasons for the expansion of chiefdoms are uncertain. According to Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, the north-western, independant chiefdoms are representative of the state of Muisca society prior to the creation of confederations. Possibly, matrimonial alliances, conducted independently of the "territory" assigned to each chiefdom, played an important role. Two traditions of chroniclers reported different versions of Bogotá expansion: According to Juan Rodríguez Freyle, Bogotá's expansion began just one year before the Spanish conquest, after having revolted against the previously dominant chiefdom of Guatavita. On the other hand, Lucas Fernández de Piedrahíta related Bogotá's expansion in the course of 67 years, as the result of various military campaigns led by different chiefs. According to Martha Herrera Angel, the colonial-era writings, while filled with exaggerations and misunderstandings, contain a core of historical truth.
The concept of gue was essential for muisca chiefs to secure their legitimacy, which was based on rules of succession and a certain degree of popular consent. Their role was to redistribute an accumulated surplus of goods, not to accumulate them. The existence of religious specialists can be explained by the need to maintain the equilibrium of the world.
The people used a decimal counting system, based on the digits of the hand. Their system went from 1 to 10 and for higher numerations they used the prefix quihicha or qhicha, which means "foot" in their Chibcha language Muysccubun. Eleven became thus "foot one", twelve "foot two", etc. As in the other pre-Columbian civilizations, the number 20 was special. It was the total number of all body extremities; fingers and toes. The Muisca used two forms to express twenty: "foot ten"; quihícha ubchihica or their exclusive word gueta, derived from gue, which means "house". Numbers between 20 and 30 were counted gueta asaqui ata, gueta asaqui ubchihica. Larger numbers were counted as multiples of twenty; gue-bosa, gue-hisca. The Muisca script consisted of hieroglyphs, only used for numerals. Gold was not the main object of prestige, but had religious significance, as chiefs preferred exotic clothing and sumptuous palisades to show their power. There was no currency among the Muiscas.

Territorial organization

Bacatá

Capital – Bacatá
Area –
Average elevation –
Last rulers – zipas Tisquesusa, Sagipa
Date of conquest – 20 April 1537 – Jiménez & Pérez de Quesada
First city – 6 August 1538 – Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada

Municipality	Department bold is capital	Ruler(s) bold is seat	Altitude urban centre	Surface area	Remarks	Map
Bacatá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2640	1587	Muisca mummy found Important market town Petrographs found
Bojacá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2598	109	Lake Herrera Petrographs found
Cajicá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2558	50.4
La Calera	Cundinamarca	zipa	2718	317	Petrographs found
Cáqueza	Cundinamarca	zipa	1746	38
Chía	Cundinamarca	zipa	2564	80	Moon Temple Herrera site Petrographs found
Choachí	Cundinamarca	zipa	1923	223	Choachí Stone found
Chocontá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2655	301.1	Important market town Battle of Chocontá Fortification between zipa & zaque
Cogua	Cundinamarca	zipa	2600	113	Muisca ceramics production Petrographs found
Cota	Cundinamarca	zipa	2566	55	Petrographs found Still Muisca people living
Cucunubá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2590	112	Petrographs found
Facatativá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2586	158	Piedras del Tunjo
Funza	Cundinamarca	zipa	2548	70	Important market town
Gachancipá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2568	44	Muisca mummy found Muisca ceramics production
Guasca	Cundinamarca	zipa	2710	346	Siecha Lakes Muisca ceramics production Petrographs found
Madrid	Cundinamarca	zipa	2554	120.5	Lake Herrera Petrographs found
Mosquera	Cundinamarca	zipa	2516	107	Lake Herrera Petrographs found
Nemocón	Cundinamarca	zipa	2585	98.1	Muisca salt mines Preceramic site Checua Petrographs found
Pacho	Cundinamarca	zipa	2136	403.3	Important market town
Pasca	Cundinamarca	zipa	2180	246.24	Battle of Pasca Muisca raft found
El Rosal	Cundinamarca	zipa	2685	86.48
San Antonio del Tequendama	Cundinamarca	zipa	1540	82	Tequendama Falls Fortification against Panche Petrographs found
Sesquilé	Cundinamarca	zipa	2595	141	Lake Guatavita Minor Muisca salt mines
Sibaté	Cundinamarca	zipa	2700	125.6	Petrographs found
Soacha	Cundinamarca	zipa	2565	184.45	Preceramic site Tequendama Herrera site Muisca ceramics production Petrographs found
Sopó	Cundinamarca	zipa	2650	111.5	Herrera site
Subachoque	Cundinamarca	zipa	2663	211.53	Petrographs found
Suesca	Cundinamarca	zipa	2584	177	150 Muisca mummies found Lake Suesca Muisca ceramics production Important market town Petrographs found
Sutatausa	Cundinamarca	zipa	2550	67	Petrographs found
Tabio	Cundinamarca	zipa	2569	74.5	Hot springs used by the Muisca
Tausa	Cundinamarca	zipa	2931	204	Muisca salt mines Petrographs found
Tena	Cundinamarca	zipa	1384	55	Fortification against Panche Petrographs found
Tenjo	Cundinamarca	zipa	2587	108	Petrographs found
Tibacuy	Cundinamarca	zipa & Panche	1647	84.4	Border with Panche Fortification against Panche & Sutagao Petrographs found
Tocancipá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2605	73.51	Preceramic site Tibitó Muisca ceramics production Important market town Petrographs found
Zipaquirá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2650	197	El Abra Muisca salt mines Important market town Petrographs and petroglyphs found
Fúquene	Cundinamarca	zipa zaque	2750	90	Lake Fúquene
Simijaca	Cundinamarca	zipa	2559	107	Conquered by zipa Saguamanchica upon zaque Michuá
Susa	Cundinamarca	zipa	2655	86	Conquered by zipa Saguamanchica upon zaque Michuá Lake Fúquene
Ubaté	Cundinamarca	zipa	2556	102	Conquered by zipa Saguamanchica upon zaque Michuá Muisca mummy found
Zipacón	Cundinamarca	zipa	2550	70	Agriculture Place of meditation for the zipa Petrographs found

Chipazaque

Municipality	Department	Ruler(s)	Altitude	Surface area	Remarks	Map
Junín	Cundinamarca	chipazaque	2300	337	Shared between zipa and zaque Petrographs found

Hunza

Capital – Hunza
Area –
Average elevation –
Last rulers – zaques Quemuenchatocha, Aquiminzaque
Date of conquest – 20 August 1537 – Jiménez & Pérez de Quesada
First city – 6 August 1539 – Gonzalo Suárez Rendón

Municipality	Department bold is capital	Ruler(s) bold is seat	Altitude	Surface area	Remarks	Map
Hunza	Boyacá	zaque	2820	121.4	Hunzahúa Well Cojines del Zaque Goranchacha Temple Muisca mummy found Important market town Petrographs found
Boyacá	Boyacá	zaque	2420	48
Buenavista	Boyacá	zaque	2100	125	Border with Muzo Nose piece and pectoral found, dated at 620 and 990 AD respectively
Chinavita	Boyacá	zaque	1763	148
Chíquiza	Boyacá	zaque	2900	119.52	Lake Iguaque
Chitaraque	Boyacá	zaque	1575	157.65
Chivatá	Boyacá	zaque	2903	56
Ciénega	Boyacá	zaque	2460	73
Cucaita	Boyacá	zaque	2650	43.58
Gachantivá	Boyacá	zaque	2450	66	Muisca mummy found Muisca copper mines
Garagoa	Boyacá	zaque	1650	191.75
Macanal	Boyacá	zaque	1680	199.5	Border with Tegua
Motavita	Boyacá	zaque	2690	62	Coca market town Petrographs found
Oicatá	Boyacá	zaque	2815	59
Pachavita	Boyacá	zaque	1985	68
Ramiriquí	Boyacá	zaque	2325	146.5	Place of death of Quemuenchatocha Important ceramics production Petrographs found
Sáchica	Boyacá	zaque	2150	62.4	Petrographs found
Samacá	Boyacá	zaque	2660	172.9
San Miguel de Sema	Boyacá	zaque	2615	90	Lake Fúquene
Siachoque	Boyacá	zaque	2760	125
Somondoco	Boyacá	zaque	1670	58.7	Muisca emerald mines Important market town
Sutamarchán	Boyacá	zaque	1800	102	Muisca ceramics production
Tinjacá	Boyacá	zaque	2175	79.3	Muisca ceramics production
Tipacoque	Boyacá	zaque	1850	72.1	Chicamocha Canyon
Turmequé	Boyacá	zaque	2389	106	Important market town Fortification between zipa & zaque
Villa de Leyva	Boyacá	zaque	2149	128	El Infiernito Lake Iguaque Muisca mummy found Important market town
Sora	Boyacá	zaque	2650	42
Soracá	Boyacá	zaque	2942	57
Sotaquirá	Boyacá	zaque	2860	288.65
Sutatenza	Boyacá	zaque	1890	41.26
Tibaná	Boyacá	zaque	2115	121.76	Petrographs found
Togüí	Boyacá	zaque	1650	118
Tuta	Boyacá	zaque	2600	165
Ventaquemada	Boyacá	zaque	2630	159.3
Viracachá	Boyacá	zaque	2520	68
Zetaquirá	Boyacá	zaque	1665	262
Almeida	Boyacá	zaque	1925	57.98
La Capilla	Boyacá	zaque	1750	57.26
Jenesano	Boyacá	zaque	2076	59
Nuevo Colón	Boyacá	zaque	2500	51
Rondón	Boyacá	zaque	2075	158
Lenguazaque	Cundinamarca	zaque	2589	15.36
Machetá	Cundinamarca	zaque	2094	229.35	Petrographs found
Tibiritá	Cundinamarca	zaque	1980	57.2	Petrographs found
Villapinzón	Cundinamarca	zaque	2715	249

Iraca

Capital – Suamox
Area –
Average elevation –
Last ruler – iraca Sugamuxi
Date of conquest – Early September 1537 – Jiménez & Pérez de Quesada
Important settlements – Suamox, Busbanzá, Firavitoba, Gámeza and Tota
Archaeological remains – mummies, Sun Temple reconstruction, Lake Tota

Municipality	Department	Ruler(s) bold is seat	Altitude	Surface area	Remarks	Map
Suamox	Boyacá	iraca Nompanim Sugamuxi	2569	208.54	Sun Temple Muisca mummy found Muisca carbon mines
Aquitania	Boyacá	iraca	3030	943	Lake Tota
Busbanzá	Boyacá	iraca	2472	22.5	Elector of new iraca
Cuítiva	Boyacá	iraca	2750	43	Lake Tota Statue of Bochica
Firavitoba	Boyacá	iraca	2500	109.9	Elector of new iraca
Gámeza	Boyacá	iraca	2750	88	Herrera site Muisca mummy found Minor Muisca salt mines Muisca carbon mines Petrographs found
Iza	Boyacá	iraca	2560	34	Herrera site Lake Tota Petrographs found
Mongua	Boyacá	iraca	2975	365.5	Petrographs found
Monguí	Boyacá	iraca	2900	81	Petroglyphs Birthplaces
Pesca	Boyacá	iraca	2858	282
Tasco	Boyacá	iraca	2530	167	Muisca mummy found
Toca	Boyacá	iraca	2810	165
Tota	Boyacá	iraca	2870	314	Lake Tota
Socotá	Boyacá	iraca Tundama	2443	600.11	Muisca mummy found
Tibasosa	Boyacá	Tundama iraca	2538	94.3

Tundama

Capital – Tundama
Area –
Average elevation –
Last ruler – Tundama
Date of conquest – Late December 1539 – Baltasar Maldonado
Important settlements – Tundama, Onzaga, Soatá, Chitagoto

Municipality	Department	Ruler(s) bold is seat	Altitude	Surface area	Remarks	Map
Tundama	Boyacá	Tundama	2590	266.93	Seat of Tundama In ancient lake
Onzaga	Santander	Tundama	1960	486.76	Important for wool and cotton production
Cerinza	Boyacá	Tundama	2750	61.63	Monument to the Muisca
Paz de Río	Boyacá	Tundama	2200	116	Coca market town
Paipa	Boyacá	Tundama	2525	305.924	Thermal springs
Sativanorte	Boyacá	Tundama	2600	184	Herrera site
Sativasur	Boyacá	Tundama	2600	81	Muisca mummy SO10-IX found Herrera site
Soatá	Boyacá	Tundama	1950	136	Herrera site Coca market town
Belén	Boyacá	Tundama	2650	83.6	Petrographs found
Corrales	Boyacá	Tundama	2470	60.85
Floresta	Boyacá	Tundama	2506	86
Nobsa	Boyacá	Tundama	2510	55.39
Santa Rosa de Viterbo	Boyacá	Tundama	2753	107
Susacón	Boyacá	Tundama	2480	191
Tibasosa	Boyacá	Tundama iraca	2538	94.3
Socotá	Boyacá	iraca Tundama	2443	600.11	Muisca mummy found

Independent ''caciques''

Capital – none
Area –
Average elevation –
Important caciques – Guatavita, Ubaté, Chiquinquirá, Ubaque, Tenza, Vélez

Municipality bold is major cacique	Department	Ruler(s)	Altitude	Surface area	Remarks	Map
Vélez	Santander	cacique	2050	271.34
Chipatá	Santander	cacique	1820	94.17	First town conquered by the Spanish
Güepsa	Santander	cacique	1540	33.08	Border with Guane Border with Yarigui
Charalá	Santander	cacique	1290	411	Border with Guane
Arcabuco	Boyacá	cacique	2739	155	Statue honouring the Muisca warriors
Betéitiva	Boyacá	cacique	2575	123
Boavita	Boyacá	cacique	2114	159	Muisca mummy found
Chiquinquirá	Boyacá	cacique	2556	133
Cómbita	Boyacá	cacique	2825	149
Covarachía	Boyacá	cacique	2320	103	Herrera site
Guateque	Boyacá	cacique	1815	36.04	Religious rituals at Guatoc hill
Guayatá	Boyacá	cacique	1767	112	Muisca money found
Moniquirá	Boyacá	cacique	1669	220	Muisca mummy found Muisca copper mines
Pisba	Boyacá	cacique	2400	469.12	Muisca mummy found
Ráquira	Boyacá	cacique	2150	233	Muisca ceramics production
Saboyá	Boyacá	cacique	2600	246.9	Petrographs found
Tópaga	Boyacá	cacique	2900	37	Muisca mummy found Muisca carbon mines
Tutazá	Boyacá	cacique	1890	135	Muisca ceramics production
Tenza	Boyacá	cacique	1600	51	Tenza Valley
Chivor	Boyacá	cacique	1800	108.36	Muisca emerald mines
Úmbita	Boyacá	cacique	2480	148.17
Carmen de Carupa	Cundinamarca	cacique	2600	228	Tunjo found
Guatavita	Cundinamarca	cacique	2680	247.3	Muisca ceramics production Main goldworking town Petrographs found
Gachetá	Cundinamarca	cacique Guatavita	1745	262.2
Guachetá	Cundinamarca	cacique	2688	177.45	Minor Muisca salt mines Petrographs found
Manta	Cundinamarca	cacique	1924	105
Ubaque	Cundinamarca	cacique	1867	104.96	Last public religious ritual Lake Ubaque
Ubalá	Cundinamarca	cacique	1949	505	Muisca emerald mines
Chipaque	Cundinamarca	cacique	2400	139.45	Petrographs found
Fómeque	Cundinamarca	cacique	1895	555.7
Quetame	Cundinamarca	cacique	1496	138.47
Une	Cundinamarca	cacique	2376	221
Fosca	Cundinamarca	cacique	2080	126.02	Fortification against Guayupe

Neighbouring indigenous groups

Panche
* Cariban-speaking
* frequent warfare
* beaten in the Battle of Tocarema
* pathways to gold
* conquest by Hernán Venegas Carrillo
Muzo or The Emerald people
* Cariban-speaking
* trading access to western neighbours
* Furatena
* pathways to gold
* conquest by Luis Lanchero
Guane
* Chibcha-speaking
* producers of cotton for mantle making
* producers of fruits
* access to La Tora ; trading sea shells at Magdalena River
* conquest by Martín Galeano

Sacred sites

The sacred sites of the Muisca Confederation were based in the Muisca religion and mythology. The Muisca were a highly religious people with their own beliefs on the origin of the Earth and life and human sacrifices were no exception to please the gods for good harvests and prosperity.
Lake Guatavita, Guatavita, was the location where the new zipa would be inaugurated. It became known with the Spanish conquerors as the site of El Dorado where the new zipa was covered in gold dust and installed as the new ruler of the southern Muisca.
In the legends of the Muisca, humankind originated in Lake Iguaque, Monquirá, when the goddess Bachué came out from the lake with a boy in her arms. When the boy grew, they populated the Earth. They are considered the ancestors of the human race. Finally, they disappeared unto the lake in the shape of snakes.
According to Muisca myths, the Tequendama Falls, outside Soacha, was the site where the first zipa Meicuchuca lost his lover who turned in a snake and disappeared in the waters of the Bogotá River.
El Infiernito, close to the present town of Villa de Leyva was a sacred site where the Muisca erected structures based on astronomical parameters.

Other sacred sites

Spanish conquests

Conquest and early colonial period

The conquest of the Muisca was the heaviest of all four Spanish expeditions to the great American civilisations. More than 80 percent of the soldiers and horses that started the journey of a year to the northern Muisca Confederation did not survive it. Various settlements were founded by the Spanish between 1537 and 1539.
A delegation of more than 900 men left the tropical city of Santa Marta and went on a harsh expedition through the heartlands of Colombia in search of El Dorado and the civilisation that produced all this precious gold. The leader of the first and main expedition under Spanish flag was Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, with his brother Hernán second in command. Several other soldiers were participating in the journey, who would later become encomenderos and taking part in the conquest of other parts of Colombia. Other contemporaneous expeditions into the unknown interior of the Andes, all searching for the mythical land of gold, were starting from later Venezuela, led by Bavarian and other German conquistadors and from the south, starting in the previously founded Kingdom of Quito in later Ecuador.
The first phase of the conquest was ended by the victory of the few conquistadors left over Tisquesusa, the last zipa of Bacatá, who fell and died after the battle at Funza, on the Bogotá savanna, 20 April 1537. The arrival of the Spanish conquerors was revealed to Tisquesusa by the mohan Popón, from the village of Ubaque. He told the Muisca ruler that foreigners were coming and Tisquesusa would die "bathing in his own blood". When Tisquesusa was informed of the advancing invasion of the Spanish soldiers, he sent a spy to Suesca to find out more about their army strength, weapons and with how many warriors they could be beaten. The zipa left the capital Bacatá and took shelter in Nemocón which directed the Spanish troops to there, during this march attacked by more than 600 Muisca warriors.
When Tisquesusa retreated in his fort in Cajicá he allegedly told his men he would not be able to combat against the strong Spanish army in possession of weapons that produced "thunder and lightning". He chose to return to Bacatá and ordered the capital to be evacuated, resulting in an abandoned site when the Spanish arrived. In search for the Muisca ruler the conquistadores went north to find Tisquesusa in the surroundings of Facatativá where they attacked him at night.
Tisquesusa was thrusted by the sword of one of De Quesada's soldiers but without knowing he was the zipa he let him go, after taking the expensive mantle of the ruler. Tisquesusa fled hurt into the mountains and died of his wounds there. His body was only discovered a year later because of the black vultures circling over it.
When Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada found out the caciques were conspiring against him, he sent out several expeditions of soldiers. His captain Juan de Céspedes went south to found Pasca on 15 July 1537. Hernán was sent north and Gonzalo himself went northeast, to search for the mythical Land of Gold El Dorado. There he did not find golden cities, but emeralds, the Muisca were extracting in Chivor and Somondoco. First foundation was Engativá, presently a locality of Bogotá, on 22 May 1537. Passing through Suba, Chía, Cajicá, Tocancipá, Gachancipá, Guatavita and Sesquilé, he arrived in Chocontá, founding the modern town on 9 June. The journey went eastward into the Tenza Valley through Machetá, Tibiritá, Guateque, Sutatenza and Tenza, founded on San Juan; 24 June. On the same day, Hernán founded Sutatausa. Gonzalo continued northwest through La Capilla and Úmbita. He arrived in Turmequé that he founded on 20 July.
In August 1537 Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada entered the territories of the zaque, who ruled from Hunza. When the Spanish conquerors entered the outskirts of Hunza and found a hill with poles were bodies were dangling, they named it Cerro de la Horca. At the time of the conquest Quemuenchatocha was the zaque and he ordered his men to not submit to the European invaders or show them the way to his bohío. He sent messengers to the Spanish conquistadors with valuable peace offers. While this was happening, Quemuenchatocha had hidden his treasures from the Spanish. Hunza was located in a valley not as green as the Bogotá savanna. The advantage of the Spanish weaponry and the use of the horses quickly beat the Muisca warriors.
When Gonzalo arrived at the main bohío of Quemuenchatocha, he found the Muisca ruler sitting in his throne and surrounded by his closest companions. All men were dressed in expensive mantles and adorned with golden crowns. On 20 August 1537, the Spanish beat the zaque and the big and strong Muisca ruler was taken captive to Suesca. There he was tortured and the Spanish soldiers hoped he would reveal where he hid his precious properties. The absence of Quemuenchatocha paved the route for his nephew Aquiminzaque to succeed him as ruler of the northern Muisca, a practice common in Muisca traditions. When Quemuenchatocha was finally released from captivity in Suesca, he fled to Ramiriquí, where he died shortly after. The Spanish soldiers found gold, emeralds, silver, mantles and other valuables in Tunja. They were not able to take all the precious pieces and many were secretly taken away by the Muisca, using folded deer skins. They hid the
valuables in nearby hills.

Name leader in bold	Nationality	Years active	Encountered bold is conquered	Year of death	Image	Notes
Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada	Granadian	1536–39 1569–72	zipa zaque	1579
Juan Maldonado	Castilian	1536–39 1569–72	Muisca
Gonzalo Macías	Castilian	1536–39 1569–71	Muisca	1571~
Hernán Pérez de Quesada	Granadian	1536–39 1540–42	Muisca	1544
Gonzalo Suárez Rendón	Castilian	1536–39	zipa, zaque	1590
Martín Galeano	Castilian	1536–39 1540–45	Muisca	1554~
Lázaro Fonte	Castilian	1536–39 1540–42	Muisca	1542
Juan de Céspedes	Castilian	1525–43	Muisca	1573 or 1576
Juan de San Martín	Castilian	1536–39 1540–45	Muisca
Antonio de Lebrija	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca	1540
Ortún Velázquez de Velasco	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca	1584
Bartolomé Camacho Zambrano	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca
Antonio Díaz de Cardoso	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca
Pedro Fernández de Valenzuela	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca
640+ conquistadors ~80%	mostly Castilian	April 1536 - April 1537	Diseases, jaguars, crocodiles, climate, various indigenous warfare	1536 1537

Name leader in bold	Nationality	Years active	Encountered bold is conquered	Year of death	Image	Notes
Sebastián de Belalcázar	Castilian	1514–39	Muisca	1551
Baltasar Maldonado	Castilian	1543–52	Muisca	1552
Nikolaus Federmann	Bavarian	1535–39	Muisca	1542
Miguel Holguín y Figueroa	Castilian	1535–39	Muisca	1576>

Settlement bold is founded	Department	Date	Year	Altitude urban centre	Notes	Map
Chipatá	Santander	8 March	1537	1820
Barbosa	Santander	March	1537	1610
Moniquirá	Boyacá	March	1537	1669
Santa Sofía	Boyacá	March	1537	2387
Sutamarchán	Boyacá	March	1537	1800
Ráquira	Boyacá	March	1537	2150
Simijaca	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2559
Susa	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2655
Fúquene	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2750
Guachetá	Cundinamarca	12 March	1537	2688
Lenguazaque	Cundinamarca	13 March	1537	2589
Cucunubá	Cundinamarca	13–14 March	1537	2590
Suesca	Cundinamarca	14 March	1537	2584
Nemocón	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2585
Zipaquirá	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2650
Cajicá	Cundinamarca	23 March	1537	2558
Chía	Cundinamarca	24 March	1537	2564
Cota	Cundinamarca	March–April	1537	2566
Funza	Cundinamarca	20 April	1537	2548

Settlement bold is founded	Department	Date	Year	Note	Map
Engativá	Cundinamarca	22 May	1537
Suba	Cundinamarca	May	1537
Chía	Cundinamarca	May	1537
Cajicá	Cundinamarca	May	1537
Tocancipá	Cundinamarca	May–June	1537
Gachancipá	Cundinamarca	May–June	1537
Guatavita	Cundinamarca	May–June	1537
Sesquilé Lake Guatavita El Dorado	Cundinamarca	May–June	1537
Chocontá	Cundinamarca	9 June	1537
Machetá	Cundinamarca	June	1537
Tibiritá	Cundinamarca	June	1537
Guateque	Boyacá	June	1537
Sutatenza	Boyacá	June	1537
Tenza	Boyacá	24 June	1537
La Capilla	Boyacá	June–July	1537
Chivor	Boyacá	July	1537
Úmbita	Boyacá	July	1537
Turmequé	Boyacá	20 July	1537
Boyacá	Boyacá	8 August	1537
Ciénega	Boyacá	August	1537
Soracá	Boyacá	20 August ~15:00	1537
Hunza	Boyacá	20 August	1537

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note	Map
Sutatausa	Cundinamarca	24 June	1537

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note	Map
Pasca	Cundinamarca	15 July	1537
San Antonio del Tequendama	Cundinamarca		1539

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note	Map
El Colegio	Cundinamarca		1537
Cuítiva	Boyacá	19 January	1550

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note	Map
Bojacá	Cundinamarca	16 October	1537
Somondoco	Boyacá	1 November	1537
Une	Cundinamarca	23 February	1538

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note	Map
Tunja	Boyacá	6 August	1539

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note	Map
Duitama	Boyacá	15 December	1539

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note	Map
Motavita	Boyacá		1540
Nevado del Sumapaz	Cundinamarca		1540

Early colonial period

Not only the Spanish settlers had lost large percentages of their men due to warfare and diseases. The assessed corregimientos of the province of Tunja between 1537 and 1636 shows a decline of the total Muisca population between 65 and 85%. Epidemics were the main cause of the rapid reduction in population. Various have been reported and many undescribed in the first twenty years of contact.
After the foundation of Bogotá and the installation of the new dependency of the Spanish Crown, several strategies were important to the Spanish conquerors. The rich mineral resources of the Altiplano had to be extracted, the agriculture was quickly reformed, a system of encomiendas was installed and a main concern of the Spanish was the evangelisation of the Muisca. On 9 October 1549, Carlos V sent a royal letter to the New Kingdom directed at the priests about the necessity of population reduction of the Muisca. The indigenous people were working in the encomiendas which limited their religious conversion. To speed up the process of submittance to the Spanish reign, the mobility of the indigenous people was prohibited and the people gathered in resguardos. The formerly celebrated festivities in their religion disappeared. Specific times for the catechesis were controlled by laws, as executed in royal dictates in 1537, 1538 and 1551. The first bishop of Santafé, Juan de los Barrios, ordered to destroy the temples of the Muisca and replace them with Catholic churches. The last public religious ceremony of the Muisca religion was held in Ubaque on 27 December 1563. The second bishop of Santafé, Luis Zapata de Cárdenas, intensified the aggressive policies against the Muisca religion and the burnings of their sacred sites. This formed the final nail in the coffin of the former polytheistic society.
The transition to a mixed agriculture with Old World crops was remarkably fast, mainly to do with the fertility of the lands of the Altiplano permitting European crops to grow there, while in the more tropical areas the soil was not so much suited for the foreign crops. In 1555, the Muisca of Toca were growing European crops as wheat and barley and sugarcane was grown in other areas. The previously self-sustaining economy was quickly transformed into one based on intensive agriculture and mining that produced changes in the landscape and culture of the Muisca.

Muisca Confederations (political units)