Mudumalai National Park
Mudumalai National Park is a national park in the Nilgiri Mountains in Tamil Nadu in southern India. It covers at an elevation range of in the Nilgiri District and shares boundaries with the states of Karnataka and Kerala. A part of this area has been protected since 1940. The national park has been part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve since 1986 and was declared a tiger reserve together with a buffer zone of in 2007.
It receives an annual rainfall of about and harbours tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests with 498 plant species, at least 266 bird species, 18 carnivore and 10 herbivore species. It is drained by the Moyar River and several tributaries, which harbour 38 fish species.
Traffic on three public roads passing through the national park has caused significant roadkills of mammals, reptiles and amphibians. The park's northern part has been affected by several wildfires since 1999.
History
The word Mudumalai is a Tamil word, with முது 'mutu' meaning old, ancient, original; and முதுகாடு 'mudhukadu' meaning ancient forest. The word மலை 'malai' means hill or mountain.The name 'Mudumalai forest' was already in use when the British Government rented the forest in 1857 for logging purposes from the Raja of Neelambur.
In 1914, large forest tracts on the Sigur Plateau were declared as reserve forest for systematic logging. An area of about was established as Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in 1940. The sanctuary was enlarged in 1977 and incorporated into Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in 1986.
It was declared as a Tiger Reserve under Project Tiger in April 2007 and notified as 'Critical Tiger Habitat' in December 2007. At the time, 1,947 people lived in 28 hamlets inside the reserve; they kept about 1,060 cattle. In 2010, it was proposed to resettle them. This notification was criticised by activists and conservationists as having been intransparent and undemocratic.
In 2010, the National Tiger Conservation Authority approved the release of funds to Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in the frame of Project Tiger. In 2020, Project Tiger has been extended until 2021 with funding of 114.1 million borne by the Government of India and the Government of Tamil Nadu.
Geography
Mudumalai National Park covers in the eastern hills of the Western Ghats at an elevation range of ; it is bordered in the west by Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, in the north by Bandipur National Park, and in the east by Sigur Reserve Forest. In the south, it is bordered by Singara Reserve Forest. The Moyar River enters the national park in the south and is joined by five tributaries. Together, they drain this area, and several artificial waterholes provide drinking water for wildlife during dry seasons.The original national park area together with a surrounding buffer zone of was designated as Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.
The elevation range of in the Western Ghats is characterised by evergreen forest with dipterocarp species prevailing.
Its undulating hills consist mostly of hornblendite and biotite gneiss with black sandy loam; red heavy loam prevails in the southern part.
It is part of the ecoregion South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests.
Mudumalai National Park and the adjacent Sigur Reserve Forest form an important wildlife corridor within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and provide the highest landscape connectivity for the Asian elephant population in the region.
Climate
Mudumalai National Park receives about rainfall annually, most of it during the southwest monsoon season from June to September. The temperature drops during the cool season from December to January, but rises during April to June, which are the hottest months.Annual precipitation ranges from in the south and west to in the east.
Flora
Mudumalai National Park harbours tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests. The floral diversity comprises 498 plant species including 154 tree, 77 shrub, 214 herb and 53 vine species.Teak ' and axlewood ' are the dominant tree species with a density of more than.
Prominent tree species include flame-of-the-forest ', Indian laurel ', kusum tree ', weaver's beam tree ', Malabar kino tree ', Indian rosewood ', Malabar plum ', silk-cotton tree ' and Indian beech '; moist deciduous forest is interspersed with giant thorny bamboo '. Mango ' and persimmon ' grow along river courses. Climbers include orange climber ', Wattakaka volubilis, frangipani vine ', trellis-vine ', purple morning glory ', striped cucumber ' and several jasmine species.
Ceylon satinwood ', red cedar ' and catechu ' are the dominant plants in shrubland patches.
Lantana camara is an invasive species that negatively affects the dispersal of the native Indian gooseberry ' and Kydia calycina, but does not affect growth and dispersal of other shrubs. A study on nesting behaviour of birds revealed that red-vented bulbul ' and red-whiskered bulbul ' prefer its top canopy level for building nests in spring.
An exceptionally large arjun tree ' with a height of and a girth of was detected in the Moyar River valley in 2019; it was used by white-rumped vulture ', brown [fish owl] ', spot-bellied eagle-owl ', crested honey buzzard ', changeable hawk-eagle ' and shikra ' for roosting.
Fauna
During the major flowering season, 394 nests of the giant honey bee were detected in the park between January and June 2007; bee colonies comprised an average of 19 nests, mostly built in large trees.Mammals
A survey carried out between November 2008 and February 2009 revealed that about 29 Indian leopards and 19 Bengal tigers lived in the park's core area of. As of 2018, the tiger population in the wider Mudumalai Tiger Reserve was estimated to comprise 103 resident individuals.Jungle cat, rusty-spotted cat and leopard cat were recorded during camera trap surveys in 2010–2011 and 2018.
Two dhole packs were monitored during 1989–1993 and had home ranges of ; packs comprised between four and 25 individuals during this period.
Golden jackal, and Nilgiri marten were also recorded in 2018.
Scat of sloth bear collected along forest roads and animal trails contained remains of 18 plant species with golden shower, Indian plum and clammy cherry forming the bulk of its diet apart from fungus-growing termites, fire ants and honey bees.
Small Indian civet, Asian palm civet and brown palm civet live in both deciduous and semi-evergreen forest patches; ruddy mongoose lives foremost in deciduous forest, whereas stripe-necked mongoose frequents riverine areas, and Indian grey mongoose U. edwardsii open habitats. The mongooses forage foremost for pill millipedes, dung beetles, fruits, small rodents, birds and reptiles.
Smooth-coated otter groups were observed along the Moyar River in 2010 and 2011. Their habitat preference was studied between 2015 and 2017; the groups preferred rocky areas near fast flowing water with loose sand and little vegetation cover.
The Asian elephant is the largest mammal in the park with an estimated 536–1,001 individuals in 25 herds in 2000. Herds comprise up to 22 individuals. The gaur is the largest ungulate in the park, with herds of up to 42 individuals that frequent foremost grasslands in the vicinity of water sources.
The sambar deer forms smaller groups of up to five individuals, but also congregates in groups of up to 45 individuals in the wet season. The chital forms large groups of at least 35 individuals, with some herds increasing to more than 100 members in the wet season.
Chital, Indian spotted chevrotain and Indian muntjac have been recorded eating fallen fruit of the Indian gooseberry in a forest monitoring plot; they are therefore considered to be the primary seed dispersers in the park. Present are also four-horned antelope, blackbuck, wild boar, Indian pangolin and Indian crested porcupine.
Four bonnet macaque troops were studied in 1997, which ranged in size from 28 to 35 members and lived in sympatry with gray langur troops.
A troop in the Moyar River valley foraged on leaves, flowers and fruits of several tree and shrub species including tamarind, banyan fig, wild jujube, neem, kaayam and indigoberry, but also consumed herbs, crickets and grasshoppers.
The range of the Indian giant squirrel is continuous in the national park's moist deciduous forest; in the drier eastern part, it inhabits foremost riverine habitat with contiguous canopy. It builds nests in trees with a mean canopy height of and feeds on 25 plant species including teak, Indian laurel and Grewia tiliifolia.
The Indian giant flying squirrel inhabits foremost moist deciduous forest with old trees of a mean height, a mean density of and a canopy height of at least.
In 2013, a painted bat was sighted in the eastern part of the tiger reserve.
Birds
Birds observed from 1994 to 1996 comprised 266 species; the 213 resident ones include Malabar grey hornbill, Indian grey hornbill, Indian peafowl, Bonelli's eagle, crested serpent eagle, black eagle, besra and crested goshawk, white-rumped shama, Indian roller, greater flameback and white-naped woodpecker, black-rumped flameback, white-bellied woodpecker, heart-spotted woodpecker, rufous woodpecker, greater racket-tailed drongo, grey-bellied cuckoo and Indian cuckoo, coppersmith barbet, white-cheeked barbet and brown-headed barbet, grey francolin, speckled piculet, Indian pond heron, white-throated kingfisher, blue-winged parakeet, Nilgiri wood pigeon, common emerald dove, yellow-footed pigeon, red spurfowl and grey junglefowl, painted bush quail, crimson-backed sunbird, Loten's sunbird, forest wagtail, white-browed wagtail black-and-orange flycatcher, Eurasian golden oriole and black-hooded oriole.In 2004, pin-striped tit-babblers were observed in a dry stream bed outside the protected area.
December to March is the breeding season of yellow-crowned woodpecker, streak-throated woodpecker, yellow-throated sparrow, blue-bearded bee-eater, Indian robin, scaly-breasted munia and white-rumped munia.
Spot-bellied eagle-owl, Oriental scops owl, brown boobook and jungle owlet are known night birds in the region.
A juvenile cinereous vulture ' was recorded in spring 2019. The vulture populations in Moyar River valley were surveyed in March 2019. About 200 white-rumped vultures and about 30 active white-backed vulture ' nests were observed; Indian vultures ' and red-headed vultures ' were sighted at several locations.
Sightings of migrating birds include booted eagle ', rufous-bellied eagle ', Eurasian sparrowhawk ', common buzzard ', western marsh harrier ' and pallid harrier ', cotton pygmy goose ', knob-billed duck ', northern pintail ' and rosy starling '.
White storks were observed in December 2013 and February 2014.
Reptiles
In 1992, six Indian star tortoises ' were sighted in scrubland at elevations of.An ornate flying snake was observed in 2006.
The mugger crocodile ' population in Moyar River was thought to encompass about 100 individuals as of 2009.
Small reptiles recorded in Mudumalai National Park comprise striped coral snake , Elliot's forest lizard , Jerdon's day gecko ', Goan day gecko ' and Beddome's ground skink '.
A dead Bibron's coral snake ' was discovered on the road in the Theppakadu area at an elevation of in August 2013, the first record since 1874.
A Bengal monitor was recorded in 2018.
The Indian rock python was studied in the frame of a telemetry project in the Moyar River valley from 2017 to 2020. In February 2019, a long female Indian rock python was observed mating with two smaller males measuring.
Fish
The Moyar River and tributaries harbour 38 fish species, including Nilgiri mystus ', Puntius mudumalaiensis, Puntius melanostigma, reba carp ', common carp ', Deccan mahseer ', Malabar baril ', mullya garra ', zig-zag eel ' and bullseye snakehead '.Threats
From 1979 to 2011, remains of 148 dead Asian elephants were found in the park; 50 individuals were killed by poachers.Traffic on three public roads cutting through Mudumalai National Park pose a significant threat to the park's wildlife; between December 1998 and March 1999 alone, 180 animals belonging to 40 species were killed by drivers. Between December 2006 and November 2007, 101 amphibians and 78 reptiles became roadkills on a stretch of the national highway passing through the park including Indirana frogs, Indian skipper frog ', bronzed frog ', pigmy wrinkled frog ', Asian common toad ', common green forest lizard ', Blanford's rock agama ', Mysore day gecko ', bronze grass skink ', green keelback ', trinket snake ', Russell's viper ', common krait ' and hump-nosed viper '. Between January 2014 and December 2016, 497 Indian palm squirrels ' were found killed in traffic collisions on a long stretch of a state highway passing through the park. A long roadkilled Bibron's coral snake was found in September 2016.
Proliferating tourism resorts and increasing demand for firewood at the national park's periphery are also considered threats to its ecosystem. In 1995, the annual firewood need was estimated at per person living in the periphery of the national park.
Between 1999 and 2013, six forest fires affected dry deciduous forest patches ranging in size from to in the northern part of the national park; the plant diversity in burned patches needs more than 15 years to recover.