Rattan
Rattan, also spelled ratan, is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests of Southeast Asia, though they can also be found in other parts of tropical Asia and Africa. Most rattan palms are ecologically considered lianas due to their climbing habits, unlike other palm species. A few species also have tree-like or shrub-like habits.
Around 20% of rattan palm species are economically important and are traditionally used in Southeast Asia in producing wickerwork furniture, baskets, canes, woven mats, cordage, and other handicrafts. Rattan canes are one of the world's most valuable non-timber forest products. Some species of rattan also have edible scaly fruit and heart of palm. Despite increasing attempts in the last 30 years at commercial cultivation, almost all rattan products still come from wild-harvested plants. Rattan supplies are now rapidly threatened due to deforestation and overexploitation. Rattan were also historically known as Manila cane or Malacca cane, based on their trade origins, as well as numerous other trade names for individual species.
Description
Most rattan palms are classified ecologically as lianas because most mature rattan palms have a vine-like habit, scrambling through and over other vegetation. However, they are different from true woody lianas in several ways. Because rattans are palms, they do not branch and they rarely develop new root structures upon contact of the stem with soil. They are monocots, and thus, do not exhibit secondary growth. This means the diameter of the rattan stem is always constant: juvenile rattan palms have the same width as when adult, usually around in diameter, with long internodes between the leaves. This also means juvenile rattan palms are rigid enough to remain free-standing, unlike true lianas which always need structural support, even when young. Many rattans also have spines, and prickles|spines] which act as hooks to aid climbing over other plants, and to deter herbivores. The spines also give rattans the ability to climb wide-diameter trees, unlike other vines which use tendrils or twining which can only climb narrower supports. Rattans have been known to grow up to hundreds of metres long.A few species of rattans are non-climbing. These range from free-standing tree-like species to acaulescent shrub-like species with short subterranean stems.
Rattans can also be solitary, clustering, or both. Solitary rattan species grow into a single stem. Clustering rattan, on the other hand, develop clumps of up to 50 stems via suckers, similar to bamboo and bananas. These clusters can produce new stems continually as individual stems die. The impact of harvesting is much greater in solitary species, since the whole plant dies when harvested. An example of a commercially important single-stemmed species is Calamus manan. Clustering species, on the other hand, have more potential to become sustainable if the rate of harvesting does not exceed the rate of stem replacement via vegetative reproduction.
Rattans display two types of flowering: hapaxanthy and pleonanthy. All the species of the genera Korthalsia, Laccosperma, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, and Myrialepis are hapaxanthic; as well as a few species of Calamus. This means they only flower and fruit once then die. All other rattan species are pleonanthic, being able to flower and fruit continually. Most commercially harvested species are pleonanthic, because hapaxanthic rattans tend to have soft piths making them unsuitable for bending.
Taxonomy
Calamoideae includes tree palms such as Raffia and Metroxylon and shrub palms such as Salacca . The climbing habit in palms is not restricted to Calamoideae, but has also evolved in three other evolutionary lines—tribes Cocoseae and Areceae in subfamily Arecoideae, and tribe Hyophorbeae in subfamily Ceroxyloideae. They do not have spinose stems and climb by means of their reflexed terminal leaflets. Of these only Desmoncus spp. furnish stems of sufficiently good quality to be used as rattan cane substitutes.There are 13 different genera of rattans that include around 600 species. Some of the species in these "rattan genera" have a different habit and do not climb, they are shrubby palms of the forest undergrowth; nevertheless they are close relatives to species that are climbers and they are hence included in the same genera. The largest rattan genus is Calamus, distributed in Asia except for one species represented in Africa. From the remaining rattan genera, Korthalsia, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, and Myrialepis are centered in Southeast Asia with outliers eastwards and northwards; and three are endemic to Africa: Laccosperma, Eremospatha and Oncocalamus.
The rattan genera and their distribution :
| Genus | Number of species | Distribution |
| Calamus L. | c. 480 | Tropical Africa, India and Sri Lanka, China, south and east to Fiji, Vanuatu and eastern Australia |
| Calospatha Becc. | – | Synonym of Calamus |
| Ceratolobus Bl. | – | Synonym of Calamus |
| Eremospatha Wendl. | 10 | Humid tropical Africa |
| Korthalsia Bl. | c. 26 | Indo-China and Burma to New Guinea |
| Laccosperma Drude | 5 | Humid tropical Africa |
| Myrialepis Becc. | 1 | Indo-China, Thailand, Burma, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra |
| Oncocalamus Wendl. | 4 | Humid tropical Africa |
| Plectocomia Mart. | c. 16 | Himalayas and south China to western Malaysia |
| Plectocomiopsis Becc. | c. 5 | Laos, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra |
| Retispatha J. Dransf. | – | Synonym of Calamus |
In Uhl & Dransfield, and also Dransfield & Manokaran, a great deal of basic introductory information is available.
Available rattan floras and monographs by region :
| Region | Reference |
| Peninsular Malaysia | Dransfield, 1979 |
| Sabah | Dransfield, 1984 |
| Sarawak | Dransfield, 1992a |
| Brunei | Dransfield, 1998 |
| Sri Lanka | de Zoysa & Vivekanandan, 1994 |
| India | Basu, 1992 |
| India | Renuka, 1992 |
| India | Lakshmana, 1993 |
| Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Renuka, 1995 |
| Bangladesh | Alam, 1990 |
| Papua New Guinea | Johns & Taurereko, 1989a, 1989b |
| Irian Jaya | Currently under study at Kew |
| Indonesia | Dransfield and Mogea ; more field work needed |
| Laos | Currently in prep. |
| Thailand | Hodel, 1998 |
| Africa | Currently in prep. |
Uses by taxon.
The major commercial species of rattan canes as identified for Asia by Dransfield and Manokaran and for Africa, by Tuley and Sunderland :
| Species | Distribution | Conservation status |
| Calamus caesius Bl. | Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Philippines and Thailand. Also introduced to China and south Pacific for planting | Unknown |
| Calamus egregius Burr. | Endemic to Hainan island, China, but introduced to southern China for cultivation | Unknown |
| Calamus exilis Griffith | Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra | Not threatened |
| Calamus javensis Bl. | Widespread in Southeast Asia | Not threatened |
| Calamus manan Miq. | Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra | Threatened |
| Calamus merrillii Becc. | Philippines | Threatened |
| Calamus mindorensis Becc. | Philippines | Unknown |
| Calamus optimus Becc. | Borneo and Sumatra. Cultivated in Kalimantan | Unknown |
| Calamus ornatus Bl. | Thailand, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, to the Philippines | Unknown |
| Calamus ovoideus Thwaites ex Trimen | Western Sri Lanka | Threatened |
| Calamus palustris Griffith | Burma, southern China, to Malaysia and the Andaman Islands | Unknown |
| Calamus pogonacanthus Becc. ex Winkler | Borneo | Unknown |
| Calamus scipionum Loureiro | Burma, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo to Palawan | Unknown |
| Calamus simplicifolius Wei | Endemic to Hainan island, China, but introduced to southern China for cultivation | Unknown |
| Calamus subinermis Miq. | Peninsula Malaysia and Borneo | Unknown |
| Eremospatha macrocarpa Mann & Wendl. | Tropical Africa from Sierra Leone to Angola | Not threatened |
| Eremospatha haullevilleana de Wild. | Congo Basin to East Africa | |
| Laccosperma robustum J. Dransf. | Cameroon to Congo Basin | |
| Laccosperma secundiflorum Mann & Wendl. | Tropical Africa from Sierra Leone to Angola | Not threatened |
Utilized Calamus species canes:
| Species of Calamus | Notes of utilization |
| Calamus acanthospathus Griff. | Canes for bridge cables, basketry |
| Calamus andamanicus Kurz | Excellent large-diameter canes harvested for furniture industry; leaves for thatching |
| Calamus aruensis Becc. | Excellent quality medium- to large-diameter canes for furniture |
| Calamus arugda Becc. | Entire canes for handicrafts, furniture, basketry, etc., local and export markets |
| Calamus axillaris Becc. | Small-diameter canes for basketry, fish traps and tying |
| Calamus bacularis Becc. | Canes for walking-sticks |
| Calamus bicolor Becc. | Ornamental use of young plants |
| Calamus blumei Becc. | Canes of good quality but quantities insufficient for commercial use; canes for baskets and mats |
| Calamus boniensis Becc. ex Heyne | Probably sold together with other small-diameter canes |
| Calamus burckianus Becc. | Canes for broom handles |
| Calamus caesius Bl. | Canes for commercial and traditional uses |
| Calamus castaneus Becc. | Leaves for thatch; immature fruits in traditional medicine |
| Calamus ciliaris Bl. | Slender canes for weaving and binding; seedlings used as ornamentals |
| Calamus conirostris Becc. | Canes of poor quality, rarely used; fruit eaten |
| Calamus convallium J. Dransf. | Canes |
| Calamus cumingianus Becc. | Entire canes made into handicrafts, furniture and baskets |
| Calamus deërratus G. Mann & H. Wendl. | Canes for construction and weaving |
| Calamus densiflorus Becc. | Canes for making furniture and baskets |
| Calamus didymocarpus Warb. ex Becc. | Canes inferior but used for local furniture-making |
| Calamus diepenhorstii Miq. | Canes for tying, cordage, basketry, fish traps and noose traps |
| Calamus dimorphacanthus Becc. var. dimorphacanthus | Canes used for baskets, bags, tying, etc. for home industries |
| Calamus discolor Becc. | Young plants as ornamentals; canes for binding or tying |
| Calamus egregius Burr. | Excellent small- to medium-diameter canes for binding and weaving in furniture; new shoots edible |
| Calamus elmerianus Becc. | Canes for furniture, handicrafts and home industries |
| Calamus erioacanthus Becc. | Canes of good quality |
| Calamus exilis Griff. | Canes for binding, weaving, basketry, handicrafts |
| Calamus flabellatus Becc. | Canes for tying, binding and weaving |
| Calamus gamblei Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus gibbsianus Becc. | Canes for tying and weaving |
| Calamus gonospermus Becc. | Edible fruit |
| Calamus gracilis Roxb. | Canes for handicrafts |
| Calamus grandifolius Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus guruba ex Mart. | Canes for basketry, chair seats |
| Calamus halconensis Baja-Lapis var. dimorphacanthus Becc. | Canes for chair frames, cables for ferry boats, hauling logs and as rigging on small sailboats; split canes for mats, basketry, fish traps, chair seats |
| Calamus heteroideus Bl. | Canes for cordage |
| Calamus hispidulus Becc. | Canes for weaving |
| Calamus hookerianus Becc. | Canes for furniture, basketry |
| Calamus huegelianus Mart. | Canes for basketry, chair frames, etc. |
| Calamus inermis T. Anders. | Canes for police sticks, chair frames |
| Calamus inops Becc. ex Heyne | Actual use of small- to medium-diameter canes not known |
| Calamus insignis Becc. | Split canes for basketry, cordage; spiny leaf-sheaths as food graters |
| Calamus javensis Bl. | Canes for cordage, basketry, noose traps, musical instruments; edible raw cabbage as medicine; spiny leaf-sheaths formerly used to make food graters |
| Calamus koordersianus Becc. | Canes locally for basket frames |
| Calamus laevigatus Mart. | Extensively collected as small-diameter cane, end-uses not documented |
| Calamus latifolius Roxb. | Canes for basketry, walking-sticks, furniture frames; split canes for chair seats |
| Calamus leiocaulis Becc. ex Heyne | Small-diameter canes extensively used to make furniture for local and export markets |
| Calamus leptospadix Griff. | Canes for basketry and chair seats |
| Calamus leptostachys Becc. ex Heyne | Excellent small-diameter canes for furniture and handicrafts for local and export markets |
| Calamus longisetus Griff. | Coarse cane for furniture; leaves for thatch; edible fruit |
| Calamus longispathus Ridl. | Young leaves occasionally as cigarette paper; fruits as medicine |
| Calamus luridus Becc. | Canes split for tying and binding |
| Calamus manan Miq. | Most desirable large-diameter canes for furniture |
| Calamus manillensis H. Wendl. | Edible fruit; canes of inferior quality for tying |
| Calamus marginatus Mart. | Poor quality but durable canes for basket frames and walking-sticks |
| Calamus mattanensis Becc. | Canes occasionally used to make coarse baskets |
| Calamus megaphyllus Becc. | Canes for basketry and tying |
| Calamus melanorhynchus Becc. | Canes for basketry and handicrafts |
| Calamus merrillii Becc. | Entire canes for chair frames, ferry boat cables, hauling logs, sailboat rigging; split canes for basketry, chairs, fish traps, etc. |
| Calamus microcarpus Becc. | Canes for basketry |
| Calamus microsphaerion Becc. | Entire canes for basketry |
| Calamus minahassae Becc. | Canes as cordage |
| Calamus mindorensis Becc. | Popular large-diameter canes for furniture; split canes for basketry, cordage |
| Calamus mitis Becc. | Canes for basketry and tying |
| Calamus moseleyanus Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus multinervis Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus muricatus Becc. | Cabbage eaten |
| Calamus myriacanthus Becc. | Canes for walking-sticks, cages, basket frames |
| Calamus nagbettai Fernandez & Dey | Canes for basketry |
| Calamus nambariensis Becc. | Canes for handicrafts |
| Calamus optimus Becc. | Canes used to make mats, for weaving, to bind furniture and cordage |
| Calamus ornatus Bl. | Major use of canes for furniture; also for walking-sticks, handles for implements and flooring; leaves, cabbage and roots as medicine; fruits occasionally eaten |
| Calamus ovoideus Thwaites ex Trimen | Split canes for basketry; entire canes for furniture frames; split cane cores for crude woven products |
| Calamus oxleyanus Teysm. & Binnend. ex Miq. | Canes for walking-sticks |
| Calamus palustris Griff. | Canes excellent for furniture frames |
| Calamus pandanosmus Furt. | Canes |
| Calamus paspalanthus Becc. | Seedlings as potential ornamental; ripe fruit pickled and young shoot eaten |
| Calamus pedicellatus Becc. ex Heyne | Canes apparently of good quality for furniture |
| Calamus perakensis Becc. | Canes occasionally used for walking-sticks |
| Calamus peregrinus Furt. | Robust canes of good quality for furniture |
| Calamus pilosellus Becc. | Canes of good appearance but probably only for local use |
| Calamus pogonacanthus Becc. ex H. Winkler | Canes of good quality for tying, binding and making coarse mats |
| Calamus poilanei Conrad | Canes for handicrafts |
| Calamus polystachys Becc. | Coarse canes used for broom handles |
| Calamus pseudorivalis Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus pseudotenuis Becc. | Canes for basketry |
| Calamus pseudoulur Becc. | Canes for basketry, etc. |
| Calamus ramulosus Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus reyesianus Becc. | Canes of small diameter use for furniture and basketry, local and international |
| Calamus rhomboideus Bl. | Canes possibly used to make baskets and mats |
| Calamus rhytidomus Becc. | Canes used locally for binding |
| Calamus rotang Linn. | Canes for basketry, chair seats |
| Calamus rudentum Lour. | Canes for handicrafts; edible fruit |
| Calamus ruvidus Becc. | Canes used for basketry and tying |
| Calamus scabridulus Becc. | Canes split for tying, thatching and cordage |
| Calamus scipionum Lour. | Canes for making moderate-quality furniture; walking-sticks, umbrella handles, etc. |
| Calamus sedens J. Dransf. | Canes sometimes used to make walking-sticks |
| Calamus semoi Becc. | Excellent quality cane; under cultivation in gardens |
| Calamus simplex Becc. | Canes for basketry |
| Calamus simplicifolius Wei | Good medium-diameter cane for furniture, binding, weaving, basketry, etc.; new shoots edible |
| Calamus siphonospathus Mart. | Canes for basketry and tying |
| Calamus solitarius T. Evans et al. | Canes for handicrafts |
| Calamus spinifolius Becc. | Canes for basketry and tying |
| Calamus subinermis H. Wendl. ex Becc. | Canes for furniture frames; cabbage cooked as a vegetable; fruit sometimes eaten |
| Calamus symphysipus Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus tenuis Roxb. | Canes for basketry; fruits and young shoots eaten |
| Calamus tetradactylus Hance | Small-diameter canes for handicrafts, basketry and furniture |
| Calamus thwaitesii Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus tomentosus Becc. | Canes for tying and binding |
| Calamus trachycoleus Becc. | Canes used as skin peels for weaving chair seats and back; unsplit for furniture; basketry, mats, fish traps, cordage |
| Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Becc. & Hook | Canes for handicrafts and furniture |
| Calamus trispermus Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus tumidus Furt. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus ulur Becc. | Split canes for cordage |
| Calamus unifarius H. Wendl. | Canes locally for furniture |
| Calamus usitatus Becc. | Canes for basketry, furniture and handicrafts |
| Calamus vidalianus Becc. | Canes for furniture |
| Calamus viminalis Willd. | Canes locally for basketry and matting |
| Calamus wailong S.J. Pei & S.Y. Chen | Canes for weaving and furniture |
| Calamus warburgii K. Schum. | Canes locally for basket frames |
| Calamus ollingeri Becc. | Canes for furniture frames |
Other traditional uses of rattans by species:
Etymology
The name "rattan" is first attested in English in the 1650s. It is derived from the Malay name rotan. Probably ultimately from rautan.Ecology
Many rattan species also form mutualistic relationships with ant species. They provide ant shelters like hollow spines, funnel-shaped leaves, or leaf sheath extensions. The rattans in turn, gain protection from herbivores.Conservation
Rattans are threatened with overexploitation, as harvesters are cutting stems too young and reducing their ability to resprout. Unsustainable harvesting of rattan can lead to forest degradation, affecting overall forest ecosystem services. Processing can also be polluting. The use of toxic chemicals and petrol in the processing of rattan affects soil, air and water resources, and also ultimately people's health. Meanwhile, the conventional method of rattan production is threatening the plant's long-term supply, and the income of workers.Rattans also exhibit rapid population growths in disturbed forest edges due to higher light availability than in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests. Although this can mean increased rattan abundance for economic exploitation, it can also be problematic in long-term conservation efforts.
Rattan harvesting from the wild in most rattan-producing countries requires permits. These include the Philippines, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, Laos, Ghana, and Cameroon. In addition, the Philippines also imposes an annual allowable cut in an effort to conserve rattan resources. Rattan cultivation is also being researched and pioneered in some countries, though it is still a young industry and only constitutes a minority of the rattan resources harvested annually.
Uses
In forests where rattan grows, its economic value can play a crucial role in conservation efforts. By offering an alternative source of income, rattan harvesting can deter loggers from engaging in timber logging. Harvesting rattan canes is simpler and requires less sophisticated tools compared to logging operations. Furthermore, rattan grows rapidly, which facilitates quicker replenishment compared to tropical wood species.This economic incentive supports forest maintenance by providing a profitable crop that complements rather than competes with trees. However, the long-term profitability and utility of rattan compared to other alternatives remain subjects of ongoing evaluation and study.Cleaned rattan stems with the leaf sheaths removed are superficially similar to bamboo. Unlike bamboo, rattan stems are not hollow. Most of the world's rattan population exists in Indonesia, distributed among the islands Borneo, Sulawesi, and Sumbawa. The rest of the world's supply comes from the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Bangladesh and Assam, India.
Food source
Some rattan fruits are edible, with a sour taste akin to citrus. The fruit of some rattans exudes a red resin called dragon's blood; this resin was thought to have medicinal properties in antiquity and was used as a dye for violins, among other things. The resin normally results in a wood with a light peach hue.The stem tips are rich in starch, and can be eaten raw or roasted. Long stems can be cut to obtain potable water. The palm heart can also be eaten raw or cooked.
Medicinal potential
In early 2010, scientists in Italy announced that rattan wood would be used in a new "wood to bone" process for the production of artificial bone. The process takes small pieces of rattan and places them in a furnace. Calcium and carbon are added. The wood is then further heated under intense pressure in another oven-like machine, and a phosphate solution is introduced. This process produces almost an exact replica of bone material. The process takes about 10 days. At the time of the announcement the bone was being tested in sheep, and there had been no signs of rejection. Particles from the sheep's bodies have migrated to the "wood bone" and formed long, continuous bones. The new bone-from-wood programme is being funded by the European Union. By 2023, experimental implants into humans were taking place.Rattan handicrafts and furniture
Clothing
Traditionally, the women of the Wemale ethnic group of Seram Island, Indonesia wore rattan girdles around their waist.Corporal punishment
Thin rattan canes were the standard implement for school corporal punishment in England and Wales, and are still used for this purpose in schools in Malaysia, Singapore, and several African countries. Similar canes are used for military punishments in the Singapore Armed Forces. Heavier canes, also of rattan, are used for judicial corporal punishments in Aceh, Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore.Wicks
Rattan is the preferred natural material used to wick essential oils in aroma reed diffusers, because each rattan reed contains 20 or more permeable channels that wick the oil from the container up the stem and release fragrance into the air, through an evaporation diffusion process. In contrast, reeds made from bamboo contain nodes that inhibit the passage of essential oils.Shelter material
Most natives or locals from the rattan rich countries employ the aid of this sturdy plant in their home building projects. It is heavily used as a housing material in rural areas. The skin of the plant or wood is primarily used for weaving.Tools and equipment
Due to its durability and resistance to splintering, sections of rattan can be used as canes, crooks for high-end umbrellas, or staves for martial arts. Rattan sticks long, called baston, are used in Filipino martial arts, especially Arnis/Eskrima/Kali and for the striking weapons in the Society for Creative Anachronism's full-contact "armoured combat".Rattan cane is also used traditionally to make polo mallets, though only a small portion of cane harvested is strong, flexible, and durable enough to be made into sticks for polo mallets, and popularity of rattan mallets is waning next the more modern variant, fibrecanes.
Along with birch and bamboo, rattan is a common material used for the handles in percussion mallets, especially mallets for keyboard percussion, e.g., marimba, vibraphone, xylophone, etc.
Weaponry
Fire-hardened rattan were commonly used as the shafts of Philippine spears collectively known as sibat. They were fitted with a variety of iron spearheads and ranged from short throwing versions to heavy thrusting weapons. They were used for hunting, fishing, or warfare. The rattan shafts of war spears are usually elaborately ornamented with carvings and metal inlays. Arnis also makes prominent use of rattan as "arnis sticks", commonly called yantok or baston. Their durability and weight makes it ideal for training with complex execution of techniques as well as being a choice of weapon, even against bladed objects.Round shields known as taming from various ethnic groups in the Philippines and parts of Borneo can also be made from tightly-woven rattan.
Rattan shields were historically used in ancient, medieval and early modern China and Korea. According to some contemporary sources, they were reasonably effective against both arrows and early firearms.
It sees also prominent use in battle re-enactments as stand-ins to potentially lethal weapons.
Rattan can also be used to build a functional sword that delivers a non-lethal but similar impact compared to steel counterparts.