Luvungi

Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the groupements within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Plain, it borders Uvira and Walungu Territories, close to the frontiers of Rwanda and Burundi. The area is bordered by Ngweshe Chiefdom to the north, the Luvubu River to the south, the Ruzizi River to the east, and Kaziba Chiefdom to the west. With an estimated population of approximately 85,000 residents as of 2016, Luvungi is predominantly inhabited by Fuliru people, with smaller communities of Vira, Bembe, Lega, Shi, Burundians, and Banyamulenge. The local economy primarily relies on subsistence farming and artisanal cassiterite mining.

Etymology

The precise meaning or origin of the name Luvungi is not explicitly specified in the colonial records. According to a report published by the International Documentation Network on the African Great Lakes Region for Uvira Territory, the name could be a regional adaptation or modification of another name, as it was derived from a Belgian colonial misinterpretation of the river Luvubu, although its authentic designation was Lyombe.

Geography

Luvungi is situated within the Ruzizi Plain, a vast low-lying region characterized by its fertile soils and extensive agricultural productivity. The plain extends between the Mitumba mountain range to the west and the Ruzizi River to the east, forming a significant agricultural zone in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The topography of Luvungi features two main relief zones: the eastern plains, which lie at elevations ranging from approximately 700 meters along the Ruzizi River, up to about 3,500 meters near the Mitumba Mountains in the west, and the western plateaus. The area's soils are diverse, including sandy, gravelly, black alluvial, and clayey types. This soil diversity supports cultivation of crops such as peanuts, maize, cotton, rice, and others.
Hydrologically, Luvungi is traversed by the Ruvubu River, which feeds into the Ruzizi River, and by the Munyovwe River, a tributary of the Ruvubu. Historically, the Munyovwe River provided drinking water for local inhabitants until a formal water supply system was established in 2005. The region's vegetation comprises grassy savannahs and gallery forests, which support pastoral activities and livestock domestication. Luvungi has historically served as a transhumance route for pastoralists from neighboring regions, including Burundi and Rwanda, occasionally leading to community conflicts over land and resources.
Climatically, Luvungi experiences a tropical climate with a distinct seasonal pattern, featuring a rainy season lasting approximately nine months from September to May, and a dry season spanning June to August. The average annual rainfall is around 940 millimeters, though it can be as low as 600 millimeters per year, with distribution issues affecting agricultural productivity.

Government and administrative division

The Luvungi groupement is governed by a chef de groupement who serves as the primary local authority and representative of the paramount Mwami of Bafuliiru Chiefdom. The Mwami retains traditional control over the land within the chiefdom, asserting ownership in accordance with customary law, a practice that diverges from the constitutional provisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which affirms that private property rights are guaranteed by the state. While the state legally manages land rights and property, customary authorities, including the Mwami and the chef de groupement, play a significant role in local land affairs, often collaborating with state authorities despite occasional conflicts over land jurisdiction and authority.
The chef de groupement is a hereditary position, descending from the Mwami, and holds authority over the area, exercising both administrative and customary functions. He is supported by a council of elders, who provide counsel and ensure that customary law is upheld. The chef de groupement oversees local governance, justice, and conflict resolution within his jurisdiction, delegating judicial authority to local trial leaders for minor cases, while more serious legal matters are handled directly by the Mwami.
The Luvungi groupement is subdivided into smaller units known as villages, each headed by a chef de ''localité, who acts as the local representative of the chef de groupement. The chef de village plays a crucial role in customary and local governance, serving as a protector, judge, and manager within his village. While some chefs de village are traditional chiefs, others may be appointed based on expertise. Below them, a chef de sous-village assists the chef de village in carrying out functions such as tax collection and local administration. Additionally, the role of chef de colline exists within the hierarchy; this position is considered a distinct chiefdom, appointed by the chef de village'', and involves customary rituals of respect, such as offering a goat and a jug of drink to acknowledge authority.

No.	Villages
1.	Bwegera
2.	Lubarika
3.	Kakamba
4.	Murunga
5.	Ndolera
6.	Katogota
7.	Luberizi
8.	Bulaga
9.	Luburule
10	Bideka

History

Prior to the colonial period, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom was under the reign of Mwami Kalingishi, a member of the Bahamba clan of Fulliru people. As the king, Kalingishi held significant authority, and all power was concentrated within the ruling family. This consolidation of power extended to the various groups known as "Baluzi". Until 1904, Itara-Luvungi was under the administration of Territory of Ruzizi-Kivu, which was governed by the Congo Free State. The region was situated strategically close to the short land border between the Belgian Congo and German East Africa until World War I. On 12 January 1915, Luvungi was raided by German forces as part of the ongoing campaign in East Africa. Although a relatively small-scale operation, the skirmish resulted in German defeat by the Belgian Force Publique, and the German commander, Karl Schimmer, was killed.
In 1920, a post was officially established at Luvungi under J. Cunds. Thereupon, negotiations took place between Chief Kabwika and the territorial authorities to address administrative challenges. The newly established post witnessed rapid stability and progress. Infrastructure development, including road construction, attracted settlers from the middle and high plateaus to the Ruzizi Plain. The Belgian administration subsequently established chiefdoms as a part of their administrative system under the policy of indirect rule. Luvungi became a part of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, which was created in 1928. In the 1950s, ethnic conflict emerged between the Bafuliiru and Burundian populations, with notable figures such as Moïse Marandura, a Fuliru leader, playing a central role in the conflict. Following Congo's independence in 1960, political violence resurfaced around 1963 when armed clashes broke out between militants of the Mouvement National Congolais, led by Marandura, and those of the Parti National Populaire, in an episode known as the Mulelist or Kwilu Rebellion, during which Luvungi served as a rear base for government forces.

Customary power

Early leadership and the reign of Kabwika (1912–1920)

The customary authority has historically been held by traditional rulers known as Bami, whose leadership spans several generations. The first officially recognized mwami of Luvungi was Kabwika, who reigned from 1912 to 1920, during a period when the groupement was known as the Luvuluga Chiefdom due to its proximity to Kaziba Chiefdom. Appointed by the Belgian colonial administration and son of former Nyamugira, Kabwika's rule was marked by significant demographic changes, particularly the influx of Burundian migrants into the Ruzizi Plain. This movement triggered longstanding land disputes, exacerbated by Kabwika's resistance to foreign encroachment, which eventually led to his deportation to Rutshuru. His temporary replacement by Chief Makora, who then facilitated further Burundian settlement in the region. During Kabwika's reign, the groupement comprised 25 localités, which were effectively managed through a collaboration between the Belgian colonial authorities and local chiefs:

No.	Localités	Chefs de localités
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25	Gombaniro Bulaga Nyamutiri Bugegwa Igaze/Busulira Kanigo Kasaba Kanguli Katembo Mbunga Ndolera Kahungwe Bideka Kitembo Kishale Munanira Muhungu Kamonyi Kakumbukumbu Kinyinya Matale Igangu Kitembo Kinigo Mulwa	Lubarika Mavudiko Kayamba Naruramba Nigaze Kiramba Businga Muzingwa Nakanguli Mubeza Lulege Binanda Kirege Mwene Kashemangwa Namudigi Nakishale Mukina Kafizi Mshombe Bashangazo Mulenga Bene Karazo Mabandiro Nabulizi Munosoli Nakanigo Kabambire Nazingo

The reign of Mbabaro and the colonial era developments (1920–1937)

Kabwika was succeeded in 1920 by his son Mbabaro, whose administration maintained close cooperation with colonial authorities. His reign was marked by relative stability and the development of early economic infrastructure, including initiatives such as a pioneering railway project intended to connect Lake Tanganyika to Lake Kivu. This infrastructure facilitated population movements from the middle plateaus to the Ruzizi Plain and encouraged the settlement of European entrepreneurs, notably Mr. Stravoulakis, who established himself in Luvungi in 1926 and became among the first to engage in commercial and pastoral activities within the region. In 1937, Mwami Mbabaro died at a time when his heir, Kimbumbu, was only eight years old. Consequently, a regency was established, with Mr. Makora, a village chief appointed by local elders, assuming authority. The period of regency was marked by instability; Makora was accused of abusing his power, which led to a decline in effective governance. During this time, incidents of cattle theft increased, worsening existing local conflicts, while the mwami was reported to have spent much of his time inebriated. A succession of minor chiefs, known as "little bami", held power in quick succession until the emergence of a more prominent leadership figure:

No.	Mwami	Reign period	Key facts
1	Kabwika	1912–1920	The migrations of the Barundi people and the subsequent establishment of competing identities.
2	Mbabaro	1920–1937	Relative stability under Belgian colonial administration, with the region coming under firm control, leading to the establishment of the first commercial enterprises that facilitated economic development and trade, as well as the undertaking of significant infrastructural projects, notably the construction of a railway connecting Lake Tanganyika to Lake Kivu.
3	Makora	1938–1941	Significant instability characterized by tumultuous regencies, with widespread reports of abuses against citizens including acts of violence and misconduct by those in authority, as well as cattle thefts and other forms of local conflict playing a role in the overall disorder and unrest within the region.
4	Mugombekere	1941–1945	The emergence of Kimbumbu as the holder of customary rights occurred following pressure from local notables.
5	Kimbumbu	1945–1955	Relative peace and a revival of economic activities: construction of a strategically important airfield was undertaken, serving both military and logistical purposes.
6	Mutanga	1955–1969	Period of regency: attempt to rename the groupement, changing its designation from the Luvuluga groupement to Itara-Luvungi, a time marked by political turbulence notably with the infiltration of Pierre Mulele's rebellion into the region, which became intertwined with local conflict dynamics and was further exacerbated by Lumumbist youth led by Moise Marandura, who were responsible for initiating significant unrest that contributed to heightened instability and social tensions during this time.
7	Ombeni Kimbumbu II	1969–1976	Phase of stabilization following the years of Mulelist insurgency and conflict.
8	Shalupa Kaliw	1976–1977	Brief regency.
9	Ndare Oyo	1977–1990	Stable period: construction of schools, clinics and roads.
10	Ombeni Kimbumbu II	1991–1995	Rapidly poisoned, leading to his replacement by Mbambaro.