Lutici

The Lutici or Liutizi were a federation of West Slavic Polabian tribes, who between the 10th and 12th centuries lived in what is now northeastern Germany. Four tribes made up the core of the federation: the Redarians, Circipanians, Kessinians and Tollensians. At least in part, the Lutici were a continuation of the Veleti. In contrast to the former and the neighboring peoples, the Lutici were not led by a Christian monarch or duke, rather power was asserted through consensus formed in central assemblies of the social elites, and the Lutici worshipped nature and several deities. The political and religious center was Radgosc.
The Lutici were first recorded by written sources in the context of the uprising of 983, by which they annihilated the rule of the Holy Roman Empire in the Billung and Northern Marches. Hostilities continued until 997. Thereafter, tensions with the empire eased, and in 1003 the Lutici entered an alliance with the emperor against duke Bolesław I of Poland. However, by 1033 the alliance broke apart, and a German–Lutician war broke out that lasted until 1035, when the Lutici became tributaries of the empire again, but otherwise retained their independence. A civil war between the core tribes began the decline of the Lutici in 1056/57. The neighboring Obodrites intervened and subdued the northwestern faction.
In 1066, the Lutici succeeded in stirring up a revolt against the Obodrite elites, in the course of which John, the bishop of Mecklenburg, was captured and sacrificed at Radgosc. As a consequence, the bishop of Halberstadt and the emperor sacked and destroyed Radgosc in subsequent campaigns, and its role as the leading pagan cult site was taken over by the Swantewit temple at Arkona. Another civil war in the 1070s led to a further decline of the Lutician federation, who then were unable to resist conquests and looting by their neighbors in the following decades.
During the first half of the 12th century, the settlement area of the Lutici was partitioned between Obodrite principalities, the later Duchy of Mecklenburg, the re-constituted Northern March, which became the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and the Duchy of Pomerania. The Lutici were converted to Christianity, and in the 13th century were assimilated by German settlers and became part of the German people during the Ostsiedlung.
Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1160s

Veleti origins

At least in part, the Lutici were a continuation of the Veleti, who are referred to by sources of the late 8th and first half of the 9th centuries as having inhabited the same region, and according to the Bavarian Geographer were likewise organized in four tribes. Whether the Lutici were ethnically identical with the Veleti remains unproven.
Contemporary chronicles sometimes connect the Lutici to the Veleti, e.g. Adam von Bremen refers to them as "Leuticios, qui alio nomine Wilzi dicuntur", and Helmold von Bosau says "Hii quatuor populi a fortidudine Wilzi sive Lutici appellantur." Modern scholarship sometimes refers to both entities by a double name, e.g. "Wilzen-Lutizen" in German or "Wieleci-Lucice" in Polish.
In the second half of the 9th century, the Veleti disappeared from written records. Lutician tribes first appear in written records after this gap: the Redarii were mentioned first in 928 by Widukind of Corvey, who listed them in the context of Slavic tribes subdued by Henry I. Incidentally, this list also contains the first mention of the Veleti after beforementioned gap, and the Redarians are listed as a separate entity from the Veleti. In 955, the Tollensians and Circipanians are first mentioned in the annals of St. Gallen, likewise in addition to the Veleti, in the context of the Battle of Recknitz.
This co-listing of Veleti with Redarians, Tollensians and/or Circipanians was however not repeated in subsequent records, e.g. the Ottonian documents do not mention the Veleti at all, while repeatedly referencing Redarians, Tollensians, Circipanes and other tribes in the respective area. Furthermore, there are only very few mentions of the Veleti in 10th-century sources: in addition to beforementioned records, the Veleti are referenced only in the annals of St. Gallen in 995 and in the annals of Quedlinburg in 995 and 997.
According to Fritze, this reflects the uncertain nomenclature after the Veleti's decline, at least as a political entity, in the mid-9th century. A variant of the designation "Lutici" was first recorded in the Annals of Hildesheim in 991, and starting in eastern Saxony, this name was gradually adopted by other chroniclers. The first mention of the Kessinians is an entry in Adam von Bremen's Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, referring to the year of 1056.

Organization

The Lutici were a federation of several smaller tribes between the Warnow and Mildenitz in the west, the Havel in the south and the Oder in the east, with the core formed by four tribes: Redarians, Tolensians, Kessinians and Circipanians. Within the federation, power was asserted by representatives of the clans and settlement communities. The highest political institution of both Veleti and Lutici was the assembly of the free, yet in contrast to the Veleti who were led by a prince, the Lutici were a "tribe without a ruler", meaning political power was asserted via discourse in an assembly.
This type of government had its roots in the Veleti period: since the mid-9th century, no Veleti princes or kings are recorded, and archaeology has revealed that in this period, many small strongholds were built in the area, in part on the ruins of the earlier, large strongholds. During the Lutician assemblies, decisions were made based on consensus, and once a decision had been made it was enforced by "severe punishment" of any violations. While similar types of government have been postulated for archaic Slavic societies, this was unusual for contemporary ones, who were usually led by a prince, duke or king asserting power via feudal dependencies.
Though missing a monarch, the Lutici had a social hierarchy. Political power was asserted by nobles, priests and free farmers. A reference to social differentiation is made by Thietmar, who reported a progressive fine system imposing higher fines for offenses on persons with a higher social status.
Whether or not the Lutician tribes had a common ethnic identity remains speculative: The cultural differences to the neighboring tribes were minor, while differences with the Saxon and Christian culture and military pressure asserted by the Holy Roman Empire have most probably resulted in a common identity, evidently in mutual solidarity expressed by the common councils and combined military campaigns. Thietmar refers to the resulting way of life as libertas more Liuticio.
The most important stronghold of the Lutici was Radgosc or Riedegost in the territory of the Redarii. After a period of dominance by the Hevelli, centered on the other important Wendish stronghold of Brenna, the Redarii became a dominant regional power themselves after the 930s. This is documented by the amount of silver tribute the Redarii were to pay to the Holy Roman Empire, and the failure of the latter to permanently subdue the area despite multiple campaigns.

Names and spelling variants

The name of the Lutici has survived in its many Latinized spelling variants used by contemporary chroniclers, most of which are still used in modern historiography in addition to their English, German and Polish renderings. The etymology of these terms is not sure, it has been proposed that they derive from the ur-Slavic root *ljutъ, meaning "wild", "fierce", or from the Slavic root *lutъ or its Latin equivalent lutum, meaning "swamp". The Polabian original might have been *L'utici.

Latinized form*	Anglicized form	Germanized form	Polonized form
Lutici	Luticians	-	Lucice
Leutici	Leuticians	-	-
Liutici	Liuticians	-	-
Lyutici	-	-	-
Lutitii	Lutitians	-	-
-	Liutitians	-	-
Lutizi	Lutizians	Lutizen	-
Leutizi	Leutizians	Leutizen	-
Liutizi	Liutizians	Liutizen	-

The names of the four subtribes relate to their respective settlement areas: the Kessini around their main stronghold Kessin on the lower Warnow, the Circipani were centered on the upper Peene, the Tollensians on the Tollense, and the Redarians lived south of Lake Tollensesee around Radgosc. In the latter case though, it is unknown whether the name of the deity is the root of the stronghold's and the tribe's name or if it is the other way around, and alternative theories connect their name to a hypothetical river "Rada" or propose a translation as "red-haired people". Earlier theories translating "Redarii" as "farmers", "plowers" or "warriors" have been refuted.
The names of these tribes likewise survived in various spelling variants, including Tolensane and Tholenzi for the Tollensians; Circipani, Zcirizspani and Zerezpani for the Circipanians; as well as Riaderi, Redarii, and Rederi for the Redarians.

History

Revolt of 983

In 983, the Lutici initiated an open rebellion, and in the ensuing war succeeded in revoking imperial control over most of the Northern and Billung marches, where the corresponding bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg were de facto annihilated. The rebellion did not only affect Lutician territories, but also those of the neighboring Obodrites and Hevelli. The strategically important Hevellian Brandenburg was sacked by Lutician forces and successfully defended against the Saxon margraves and Hevellian princes. Incidentally, the pagan Luticians appointed Kizo, a Saxon Christian, commander of the Brandenburg. Contemporary German chronicler Thietmar blames the uprising on maltreatment of the Lutici by the margraves: "warriors, who used to be our servants, now free as a consequence of our injustices ."
In the Obodrite principality, the Luticians initiated a revolt aimed at the abolishment of feudal rule and Christianity, drawing on consideral support from the Obodrite populace. In part, the Obodrite revolt was successful: the princely family, though in part remaining Christian, dissolved Christian institutions, and the Bishop of Oldenburg had to abandon his bishopric. The Obodrite rebels destroyed the see in Oldenburg and also the see of the diocese, Hamburg. The ensuing war with the Saxons however culminated in the sack of the Obodrite stronghold of Mecklenburg by Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, in 995.
The uprising had started when the Holy Roman Empire was weakened by the defeat emperor Otto II had suffered against the Saracens in the Battle of Stilo. Otto II died in Rome shortly after the rebellion started, and three weeks later, his three-year-old son Otto III was crowned and anointed king of the Germans by the archbishops of Mainz and Ravenna in Aachen on Christmas 983.
The coronation was not undisputed: an oppositional group had formed in the empire supporting the kingship of Bavarian duke Henry the Quarrelsome, and the Christian West Slavic dukes Boleslaus II of Bohemia and Mieszko I of Poland as well as the Christian Obodrite prince Mstivoj were among the latter's supporters. All of them had accepted Henry's claim to the throne at the Quedlinburg Hoftag of Easter 984, and only at the Quedlinburg Hoftag of Easter 986 Otto III was accepted as king by the opposition, including the Bohemian and Polish dukes.
While neither Mstivoj, nor his son and successor Mstislav were present at the 986 meeting, they continued to maintain close ties to the empire, despite their participation in campaigns into Saxon Nordalbingia and Altmark in the initial stage of the uprising.
Handling of the Lutician rebellion thus became a central objective for the young king, and several campaigns of the Lutici and Obodriti into the eastern Duchy of Saxony and German campaigns vice versa are recorded for nearly every year of his kingship. Thereby, the Saxons experienced several difficulties resulting from the de-central organization of the Lutici. Apart from the attempted reconquest of the lost sees of the bishoprics, the Saxon armies faced wide heaths, lake- and woodlands that lacked targets suitable to decide the war. According to the Annales Quedlinburgensis, the first Saxon campaign of 985 thus followed a tactic of scorched earth: "with fire and slaughter, they devastated the whole region", a characterization that applied to the following campaigns as well. Following a hypothesis forwarded in modern historiography, e.g. by Gerd Althoff, these campaigns had not the primary purpose of a reconquest, but rather the purpose of looting and taking revenge.
The first such campaign in which Otto III participated was in 986, when Otto was six years old. In 991, at the age of eleven, he participated in the temporary reconquest of Brandenburg, which was soon lost again due to the treason of a Saxon defector. In 992, he participated again in the subsequent siege of Brandenburg, where the Saxon army suffered heavy casualties before it was victorious in 993. In 994 however, the war's tide turned again.
Thus, Otto III organized a campaign involving an abundance of princes of the empire, which was also the first campaign he led as an independent ruler, since before 994/995 he had been under the tutelage of his mother Theophanu, and after her death, under the tutelage of his grandmother, Adelaide, and Willigis, archbishop of Mainz. Among the participants of the campaign were Bernard I of Saxony, his former rival Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria along with his son and later emperor Henry IV, also the bishops of Regensburg and Freising, the archbishop of Magdeburg, of Meißen, as well as the margraves Gero and Liuthar, duke Mieszko's son Bolesław I of Poland, a son of duke Boleslaus II of Bohemia, and the latter's rival Soběslav, brother of Adalbert of Prague. While Henry the Quarrelsome died before the campaign started in 995, and his son Henry IV thereupon returned to Bavaria to secure his succession, the participant's list and the assembled force distinguished this campaign from the mostly Saxon campaigns mounted to crush the rebellion before.
The 995 campaign also played a role in Bohemian history: Boleslaus II, against his promises, made use of the absence of his rival Soběslav, marched on the latter's stronghold in Libice and killed the members of his family, the opposing Slavnikids.
In early 996, Otto III left for Rome to receive the imperial crown from pope Gregory V. At the same time, Adalbert of Prague was also in Rome, and both Otto and Adalbert left – on different routes – in June 996, to meet again in Ingelheim and Mainz during the fall. Adalbert, who in Rome and with the pope's consent had agreed on going on a mission into pagan territory, yet he was still undecided on whether he should try to convert the Lutici or the Old Prussians. Eventually he settled for a mission to the Prussians, who killed him on 23 April 997. Also in 997, Otto III mounted a last campaign into the areas held by the Lutici, targeting the Hevelli. Afterwards, Otto III instead focussed on plans to re-organize the Holy Roman Empire.