High-context and low-context cultures
In anthropology, high-context and low-context cultures are ends of a continuum of how explicit the messages exchanged in a culture are and how important the context is in communication. The distinction between cultures with high and low contexts is intended to draw attention to variations in both spoken and non-spoken forms of communication. The continuum pictures how people communicate with others through their range of communication abilities: utilizing gestures, relations, body language, verbal messages, or non-verbal messages.
"High-" and "low-" context cultures typically refer to language groups, nationalities, or regional communities. However, the concept may also apply to corporations, professions, and other cultural groups, as well as to settings such as online and offline communication.
High-context cultures often exhibit less-direct verbal and nonverbal communication, utilizing small communication gestures and reading more meaning into these less-direct messages. Low-context cultures do the opposite; direct verbal communication is needed to properly understand a message being communicated and relies heavily on explicit verbal skills.
The model of high-context and low-context cultures offers a popular framework in intercultural communication studies but has been criticized as lacking empirical validation.
History of differing context cultures
These concepts were first introduced by the anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his 1959 book "The Silent Language." Cultures and communication in which the context of the message has great importance to structuring actions are referred to as high context. High-context defines cultures that are usually relational and collectivist, and which most highlight interpersonal relationships. Hall identifies high-context cultures as those in which harmony and the well-being of the group are preferred over individual achievement. In low context, communication members' communication must be more explicit, direct, and elaborate because individuals are not expected to have knowledge of each other's histories or backgrounds, and communication is not necessarily shaped by long-standing relationships between speakers. Because low-context communication concerns more direct messages, the meaning of these messages is more dependent on the words being spoken rather than on the interpretation of more subtle or unspoken cues.Low-context communication relies more on said words to convey meaning than it does on more nuanced or unsaid indications. This is because spoken words are more straightforward in nature.
A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that the model was "unsubstantiated and underdeveloped".
Characteristics of high-context and low-context cultures
Denotation and connotation
High-context cultures are related to connotation. People within high-context cultures tend to be more aware and observant of facial expressions, body language, changes in tone, and other aspects of communication that are not directly spoken. Denotation tends to be attributed to low-context culture. In low-context cultures, people communicate more directly by explicitly stating what they want to communicate.Interpersonal relationships
Individualism and collectivism are related to low-context and high-context cultures, respectively. Within high-context cultures, people rely on their networks of friends and family, viewing their relationships as part of one large community. In low-context cultures, relationships are not viewed as important figures to identity. People within low-context cultures see their relationships much looser and the lines between networks of people are more flexibly drawn.Interaction
When people from different cultures and communication styles work together, misunderstandings and conflicts can arise. Low-context communicators might seem distant or unfriendly to those from high-context societies, while high-context communicators might appear pushy or impolite.Understanding whether a culture is high or low can dramatically improve communication effectiveness. In high-context cultures, where much of the communication is implicit, knowing the context allows individuals to pick up on non-verbal cues and indirect messages, thus facilitating smoother interactions. Conversely, in low-context cultures, recognizing the need for explicit communication helps in providing clear and direct information, which can avoid misunderstandings. This understanding is relevant to global business environments, which benefit from clear communication.
Examples of higher- and lower-context cultures
Cultural contexts are not absolutely "high" or "low". Instead, a comparison between cultures may find communication differences to a greater or lesser degree. Typically a high-context culture will be relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. They place a high value on interpersonal relationships and group members are a very close-knit community. Typically a low-context culture will be less close-knit, and so individuals communicating will have fewer relational cues when interpreting messages. Therefore, it is necessary for more explicit information to be included in the message so it is not misinterpreted. Not all individuals in a culture can be defined by cultural stereotypes, and there will be variations within a national culture in different settings. For example, Hall describes how Japanese culture has both low- and high-context situations. However, understanding the broad tendencies of predominant cultures can help inform and educate individuals on how to better facilitate communication between individuals of different cultural backgrounds.Although the concept of high- and low-context cultures is usually applied in the field of analyzing national cultures, it can also be used to describe scientific or corporate cultures or specific settings such as airports or law courts. A simplified example mentioned by Hall is that scientists working in "hard science" fields tend to have lower-context cultures: because their knowledge and models have fewer variables, they will typically include less context for each event they describe. In contrast, scientists working with living systems need to include more context because there can be significant variables which impact the research outcomes.
Croucher's study examines the assertion that culture influences communication style preference. Data was gathered in India, Ireland, Thailand, and the United States where the results confirm that "high-context nations prefer the avoiding and obliging conflict styles more than low-context nations, whereas low-context nations prefer the uncompromising and dominating communication style more than high-context nations."
Individuals and groups operating in low context cultures are quite explicit and elaborate without having prior knowledge of each member's history or background, and tend to take what is said literally and prefer to have thorough knowledge before a task or a meeting.
In addition, Hall identified Japanese, Arabs, and Southern European peoples as high-context, but Germans, Scandinavians and other Northern Europeans, and Americans low-context.
Cultures and languages are defined as higher or lower contexts on a spectrum. Hall notes a similar difference between Navajo-speakers and English speakers in a United States school.
Hall proposed a "spectrum" of national cultures from "High-Context cultures" to "Low-Context Cultures."
Cultural context can also shift and evolve. For instance, a study has argued that both Japan and Finland are becoming lower-context with the increased influence of Western Europe and United States culture.
Case studies
US, China, and Korea
Kim Donghoon conducted a study to test the major aspects of high-context versus low-context culture concepts. The study collected three samples from different cultures - the US, China, and Korea - with 96 business managers surveyed in the American and Chinese samples and 50 managers in the Korean sample. According to Hall's theory, the Chinese and Korean samples represented higher-context cultures while the American sample represents a lower-context culture. The study tested 16 items, covering various aspects of the high-versus-low context concept, including social orientation, responsibility, confrontation, communication, commitment, and dealing with new situations.The results show significant differences between the American, Chinese, and Korean samples on 15 out of 16 items, with 11 items significant at the.01 level, one at the.05 level, and three at the.10 level. The composite score also indicates a significant difference among the three samples at the.01 level. The American sample scored the lowest compared to the two "Oriental samples," which aligns with Hall's concept. Overall, this study provides further evidence to support the high versus low-context culture concepts with Chinese, Korean, and American participants. The study suggests that in high-context cultures, such as China and Korea, people tend to be more socially oriented, less confrontational, and more complacent with existing ways of living compared to people from low-context cultures like the US.
Sino-American Language through automobile advertisement
A study from 2019 found that due to the different cultural backgrounds of China and the United States, the use of language in automotive advertising varies a lot.For example, Chinese automobile advertisements, which are found to belong to the high-context category, characterized by vagueness and implicitness. Much of the information is brought in the context of the publicity, that includes also shared history, relationships, and cultural norms/values.
On the other hand, American automobile advertisements are categorized as low context, characterized by straightforwardness and frankness. This aligns with low-context cultures where communication is more explicit, direct, and elaborate.