List of Roman emperors
The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire from the granting of the name and title Augustus to Octavian by the Roman Senate in 27 BC onward. Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus and princeps civitatis. The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position, and emperors gradually grew more monarchical and authoritarian.
The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until the late third or early fourth century. The modern word "emperor" derives from the title imperator, that was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps. For example, Augustus's official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied much of Europe and portions of North Africa and the Middle East. Under the republic, the Senate and People of Rome authorized provincial governors, who answered only to them, to rule regions of the empire. The chief magistrates of the republic were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, who also controlled and determined their election. Often, the emperors themselves, or close family, were selected as consul.
After the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian increased the authority of the emperor and adopted the title dominus noster. The rise of powerful barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire, the challenge they posed to the defense of far-flung borders as well as an unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration of the Empire geographically with a co-augustus in 286. In 330, Constantine the Great, the emperor who accepted Christianity, established a second capital in Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople. Historians consider the Dominate period of the empire to have begun with either Diocletian or Constantine, depending on the author. For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognized senior emperor, with the division usually based on geographic regions. This division became permanent after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have traditionally dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire is dated either from the de facto date of 476, when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer, or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court. Historians typically refer to the empire in the centuries that followed as the "Byzantine Empire", governed by the Byzantine emperors. Given that "Byzantine" is a later historiographical designation and the inhabitants and emperors of the empire continually maintained Roman identity, this designation is not used universally and continues to be a subject of specialist debate. Under Justinian I, in the sixth century, a large portion of the western empire was retaken, including Italy, Africa, and part of Spain. Over the course of the centuries thereafter, most of the imperial territories were lost, which eventually restricted the empire to Anatolia and the Balkans. The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos at the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were conquered by the Ottoman Turks led by Sultan Mehmed II. In the aftermath of the conquest, Mehmed II proclaimed himself kayser-i Rûm, thus claiming to be the new emperor, a claim maintained by succeeding sultans. Competing claims of succession to the Roman Empire have also been forwarded by various other states and empires, and by numerous later pretenders.
Legitimacy
While the imperial government of the Roman Empire was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars. From the rise of Augustus, the first Roman emperor, in 27 BC to the Sack of [Rome |sack of Rome] in AD 455, there were over a hundred usurpations or attempted usurpations. From the murder of Commodus in 192 until the fifth century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. Very few emperors died of natural causes, with regicide in practical terms having become the expected end of a Roman emperor by late antiquity. The distinction between a usurper and a legitimate emperor is a blurry one, given that a large number of emperors that were commonly considered legitimate began their rule as usurpers, revolting against the previous legitimate emperor.True legitimizing structures and theories were weak, or wholly absent in the Roman Empire, and there were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by the Roman army. Dynastic succession was not legally formalized, but also not uncommon, with powerful rulers sometimes succeeding in passing power on to their children or other relatives. While dynastic ties could bring someone to the throne, they were not a guarantee that their rule would not be challenged. With the exception of Titus, no son of an emperor who ruled after the death of his father died a natural death until Constantine I in 337. Control of Rome itself and approval of the Roman Senate held some importance as legitimising factors, but were mostly symbolic. Emperors who began their careers as usurpers had often been deemed public enemies by the senate before they managed to take the city. Emperors did not need to be acclaimed or crowned in Rome itself, as demonstrated in the Year of the Four Emperors, when claimants were crowned by armies in the Roman provinces, and the senate's role in legitimising emperors had almost faded into insignificance by the Crisis of the Third Century. By the end of the third century, Rome's importance was mainly ideological, with several emperors and usurpers even beginning to place their court in other cities in the empire, closer to the imperial frontier.
Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as proclamation by the army, blood connections to past emperors, wearing imperial regalia, distributing one's own coins or statues and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors. There were no constitutional or legal distinctions that differentiated legitimate emperors and usurpers. In ancient Roman texts, the differences between emperors and "tyrants" is often a moral one rather than a legal one. Typically, the actual distinction was whether the claimant had been victorious or not. In the Historia Augusta, an ancient Roman collection of imperial biographies, the usurper Pescennius Niger is expressly noted to only be a tyrant because he was defeated by Septimius Severus. This is also followed in modern historiography, where, in the absence of constitutional criteria separating them, the main factor that distinguishes usurpers from legitimate Roman emperors is their degree of success. What makes a figure who began as a usurper into a legitimate emperor is typically either that they managed to gain the recognition from a more senior, legitimate emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power from them by force.
List inclusion criteria
Given that a concept of constitutional legitimacy was irrelevant in the Roman Empire, and emperors were only 'legitimate' in so far as they were able to be accepted in the wider empire, this list of emperors operates on a collection of inclusion criteria:- Imperial claimants whose power across the empire became, or from the beginning was, absolute and who ruled undisputed are treated as legitimate emperors. From 286 onward, when imperial power was usually divided among two colleagues in the east and west, control over the respective half is sufficient even if a claimant was not recognized in the other half, such as was the case for several of the last few emperors in the west.
- Imperial claimants who were proclaimed emperors by another, legitimate, senior emperor, or who were recognized by a legitimate senior emperor, are treated as legitimate emperors. Many emperors ruled alongside one or various joint-emperors. However, and specially from the 4th century onwards, most of these were children who never ruled in their own right. Scholars of the later Empire always omit these rulers, but the same is not always applied during the early Empire. For the purposes of consistency, later senior emperors' tenures as junior co-emperors are not counted as part of their reign. The list also gives all co-emperors their own entry only up to the 4th century.
- Imperial claimants who achieved the recognition of the Roman Senate, especially in times of uncertainty and civil war, are, due to the senate's nominal role as an elective body, treated as legitimate emperors. In later times, especially when emperors ruled from other cities, this criterion defaults to the possession and control of Rome itself. In the later eastern empire, possession of the capital of Constantinople was an essential element of imperial legitimacy.
Principate (27 BC – AD 284)
Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – AD 68)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Augustus | 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 | Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. Gradually acquired further power through grants from, and constitutional settlements with, the Roman Senate. Continuously head of state since 19 August 43 BC, unopposed after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. | 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 Born as Gaius Octavius. Died probably of natural causes, allegedly poisoned with figs by Livia. | |
| Tiberius | 17 September 14 – 16 March 37 | Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus | 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 Died probably of natural causes, allegedly murdered at the instigation of Caligula | |
| Caligula | 18 March 37 – 24 January 41 | Grandnephew and adopted heir of Tiberius, great-grandson of Augustus | 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 Murdered in a conspiracy involving the Praetorian Guard and senators | |
| Claudius | 24 January 41 – 13 October 54 | Uncle of Caligula, nephew of Tiberius, grandnephew of Augustus, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard and accepted by the Senate | 1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54 Began the Roman conquest of Britain. Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in favor of her son Nero | |
| Nero | 13 October 54 – 9 June 68 | Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius, great-great-grandson of Augustus | 15 December 37 – 9 June 68 Committed suicide after being deserted by the Praetorian Guard and sentenced to death by the Senate |
Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Galba | 8 June 68 – 15 January 69 | Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, revolted against Nero and seized power after his suicide, with support of the Senate and Praetorian Guard | 24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69 Murdered by soldiers of the Praetorian Guard in a coup led by Otho | |
| Otho | 15 January – 16 April 69 | Seized power through a coup against Galba | 28 April 32 – 16 April 69 Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius | |
| Vitellius | 19 April – 20 December 69 | Governor of Germania Inferior, proclaimed emperor by the Rhine legions on 2 January in opposition to Galba and Otho, later recognized by the Senate | 24 September 15 – 20 December 69 Murdered by Vespasian's troops |
Flavian dynasty (69–96)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Vespasian | 1 July 69 – 23 June 79 | Proclaimed by the eastern legions in opposition to Vitellius, later recognized by the Senate | 17 November 9 – 23 June 79 Began construction of the Colosseum. Died of dysentery | |
| Titus | 24 June 79 – 13 September 81 | Son of Vespasian | 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 Died of natural causes | |
| Domitian | 14 September 81 – 18 September 96 | Brother of Titus and son of Vespasian | 24 October 51 – 18 September 96 Assassinated in a conspiracy of court officials, possibly involving Nerva |
Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Nerva | 18 September 96 – 27 January 98 | Proclaimed emperor by the Senate after the murder of Domitian | 8 November 30 – 27/28 January 98 First of the "Five Good Emperors". Died of natural causes | |
| Trajan | 28 January 98 – 9 August 117 | Adopted son of Nerva | 18 September 53 – 9 August 117 First non-Italian emperor. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. Died of natural causes | |
| Hadrian | 11 August 117 – 10 July 138 | Cousin of Trajan, allegedly adopted on his deathbed | 24 January 76 – 10 July 138 Ended Roman expansionism. Destroyed Judea after a massive revolt. Died of natural causes | |
| Antoninus Pius | 10 July 138 – 7 March 161 | Adopted son of Hadrian | 19 September 86 – 7 March 161 Died of natural causes | |
| Marcus Aurelius | 7 March 161 – 17 March 180 | Son-in-law and adopted son of Antoninus Pius. Until 169 reigned jointly with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, the first time multiple emperors shared power. Since 177 reigned jointly with his son Commodus | 26 April 121 – 17 March 180 Last of the "Five Good Emperors"; also one of the most representative Stoic philosophers. Died of natural causes | |
| Lucius Verus | 7 March 161 – January/February 169 | Adopted son of Antoninus Pius, named joint emperor by his adoptive brother Marcus Aurelius | 15 December 130 – early 169 Died of natural causes | |
| Commodus | 17 March 180 – 31 December 192 | Son of Marcus Aurelius. Proclaimed co-emperor in 177, at age 16, becoming the first emperor to be elevated during predecessor's lifetime | 31 August 161 – 31 December 192 Strangled to death in a conspiracy involving his praetorian prefect, Laetus, and mistress, Marcia |
Year of the Five Emperors (193)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Pertinax | 1 January – 28 March 193 | City prefect of Rome at Commodus's death, set up as emperor by the praetorian prefect, Laetus, with consent of the Senate | 1 August 126 – 28 March 193 Murdered by mutinous soldiers of the Praetorian Guard | |
| Didius Julianus | 28 March – 1 June 193 | Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor | 30 January 133 – 1/2 June 193 Killed on order of the Senate, at the behest of Septimius Severus |
Severan dynasty (193–235)
Crisis of the Third Century (235–284)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Maximinus I "Thrax" | March 235 – c. June 238 | Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander, recognized at Rome on 23 March 235 | c. 172–180 – c. June 238 First commoner to become emperor. Murdered by his men during the siege of Aquileia against the Senatorial forces of Pupienus and Balbinus | |
| Gordian I | c. April – May 238 | Proclaimed emperor alongside his son, Gordian II, while serving as governor of Africa, in a revolt against Maximinus, and recognized by the Senate | c. 158 – c. May 238 Oldest emperor at the time of his elevation. Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his son | |
| Gordian II | c. April – c. May 238 | Proclaimed emperor alongside his father Gordian I, during revolt in Africa against Maximinus | c. 192 – c. May 238 The shortest-reigning emperor. Killed outside Carthage in battle against an army loyal to Maximinus I | |
| Pupienus | c. May – c. August 238 | Proclaimed emperor jointly with Balbinus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus | c. 164 – c. August 238 Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard | |
| Balbinus | c. May – c. August 238 | Proclaimed emperor jointly with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus | c. 178 – c. August 238 Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard | |
| Gordian III | c. August 238 – c. February 244 | Grandson of Gordian I, appointed as heir by Pupienus and Balbinus, upon whose deaths he succeeded as emperor | 20 January 225 – c. February 244 Died during campaign against Persia, possibly in a murder plot instigated by Philip I | |
| Philip I "the Arab" | c. February 244 – September/October 249 | Praetorian prefect under Gordian III, seized power after his death | c. 204 – September/October 249 Killed at the Battle of Verona, against Decius | |
| II |Philip II] "the Younger" | July/August 247 – September/October 249 | Son of Philip I, appointed co-emperor | c. 237 – September/October 249 Murdered by the Praetorian Guard | |
| Decius | September/October 249 – June 251 | Proclaimed emperor by the troops in Moesia, then defeated and killed Philip I in battle | c. 190/200 – June 251 Killed at the Battle of Abrittus, against the Goths | |
| Herennius Etruscus | May/June – June 251 | Son of Decius, appointed co-emperor | Unknown – June 251 Killed at the Battle of Abrittus alongside his father | |
| Trebonianus Gallus | June 251 – August 253 | Senator and general, proclaimed emperor after the deaths of Decius and Herennius Etruscus | c. 206 – c. August 253 Murdered by his own troops in favor of Aemilian | |
| Hostilian | c. June – c. July 251 | Younger son of Decius, named caesar by his father and proclaimed co-emperor by Trebonianus Gallus | Unknown – c. July 251 Died of plague or murdered by Trebonianus Gallus | |
| Volusianus | c. August 251 – c. August 253 | Son of Gallus, appointed co-emperor | c. 230 – c. August 253 Murdered by the soldiers, alongside his father | |
| Aemilianus | c. July – c. September 253 | Commander in Moesia, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers after defeating barbarians, in opposition to Gallus | c. 207 – c. September 253 Murdered by his own troops in favor of Valerian | |
| Silbannacus | c. September/October 253 | Obscure figure known only from coinage, may have briefly ruled in Rome between Aemilianus and Valerian | Nothing known | |
| Valerian | c. September 253 – c. June 260 | Army commander in Raetia and Noricum, proclaimed emperor by the legions in opposition to Aemilian | c. 200 – after 262 Captured at Edessa by the Persian king Shapur I, died in captivity possibly forced to swallow molten gold | |
| Gallienus | c. September 253 – c. September 268 | Son of Valerian, appointed joint emperor. Sole emperor after Valerian's capture in 260 | 218 – c. September 268 Faced multiple revolts and barbarian invasions. Murdered in a conspiracy of army officers, involving Claudius II and Aurelian | |
| Saloninus | Autumn 260 | Son of Gallienus, proclaimed caesar by his father and proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefect Silvanus while besieged by Postumus | Unknown – Late 260 Murdered by troops loyal to Postumus | |
| Claudius II "Gothicus" | c. September 268 – c. August 270 | Army commander in Illyria, proclaimed emperor after Gallienus's death | 10 May 214 – August/September 270 Died of plague | |
| Quintillus | c. August – c. September 270 | Brother of Claudius II, proclaimed emperor after his death | Unknown – 270 Committed suicide or killed at the behest of Aurelian | |
| Aurelian | c. August 270 – c. November 275 | Commander of the Roman cavalry, proclaimed emperor by Danube legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus | 9 September 214 – Sept./Dec. 275 Reunified the Roman Empire. Murdered by the Praetorian Guard | |
| Tacitus | c. December 275 – c. June 276 | Alleged princeps senatus, proclaimed emperor by the Senate or, more likely, by his soldiers in Campania after Aurelian's death | c. 200 – c. June 276 Died of illness or possibly murdered | |
| Florianus | c. June – September 276 | Maternal half-brother of Tacitus, proclaimed himself emperor after the death of Tacitus | Unknown – September/October 276 Murdered by his own troops in favor of Probus | |
| Probus | c. June 276 – c. September 282 | General; proclaimed emperor by the eastern legions, in opposition to Florianus | 19 August 232 – c. September 282 Murdered by his own troops in favor of Carus | |
| Carus | c. September 282 – c. July/August 283 | Praetorian prefect under Probus, seized power before or after Probus's murder | c. 224 – c. July/August 283 Died in Persia, either of illness, assassination, or by being hit by lightning | |
| Carinus | Spring 283 – August/September 285 | Son of Carus, appointed joint emperor shortly before his death. Succeeded jointly with Numerian | c. 250 – August/September 285 Probably died in battle against Diocletian, likely betrayed by his own soldiers | |
| Numerian | c. July/August 283 – November 284 | Son of Carus, succeeded jointly with Carinus | c. 253 – November 284 Died while marching to Europe, probably of disease, possibly assassinated |
Dominate (284–476)
Tetrarchy (293–324)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Diocletian "Jovius" | 20 November 284 – 1 May 305 | Commander of the imperial bodyguard, acclaimed by the army after death of Numerian, and proceeded to defeat Numerian's brother, Carinus, in battle | 22 December 243 – 3 December 311 Began the last great persecution of Christianity. First emperor to voluntarily abdicate. Died in unclear circumstances, possibly suicide | |
| Maximian "Herculius" | 1 April 286 – 1 May 305 November 306 – 11 November 308 | Elevated by Diocletian, ruled the western provinces | c. 250 – c. July 310 Abdicated with Diocletian, later trying to regain power with, and then from, Maxentius, before being probably killed on orders of Constantine I | |
| Galerius | 1 May 305 – May 311 | Elevated to caesar in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as eastern augustus upon Diocletian's abdication | c. 258 – May 311 Died of natural causes | |
| Constantius I "Chlorus" | 1 May 305 – 25 July 306 | Maximian's relation by marriage, elevated to caesar in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as western augustus upon Maximian's abdication | 31 March 250 – 25 July 306 Died of natural causes | |
| Severus II | August 306 – March/April 307 | Elevated to caesar in 305 by Maximian, promoted to western augustus by Galerius upon Constantius I's death | Unknown – September 307 Surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius, later murdered or forced to commit suicide | |
| Alexander | 308 – 310 | Usurped power against Maxentius in the Diocese of Africa and Sardinia. Only recognized by Constantine I | Unknown – c. 310 Defeated and executed by Maxentius | |
| Maxentius | 28 October 306 – 28 October 312 | Son of Maximian and son-in-law of Galerius, seized power in Italy with support of the Praetorian Guard and his father after being passed over in the succession. Not recognized by the other emperors | c. 283 – 28 October 312 Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I | |
| Licinius | 11 November 308 – 19 September 324 | Elevated by Galerius to replace Severus, in opposition to Maxentius. Defeated Maximinus Daza in a civil war to become sole emperor of the East in 313 | c. 265 – early 325 Defeated, deposed and put to death by Constantine I | |
| Maximinus II "Daza" | 310 – c. July 313 | Nephew of Galerius, elevated to caesar by Galerius in 305, and acclaimed as augustus by his troops in 310 | 20 November c. 270 – c. July 313 Defeated in civil war against Licinius, died shortly afterwards | |
| Valerius Valens | October 316 – c. January 317 | Frontier commander in Dacia, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine I | Unknown – 317 Executed in the lead-up to a peace settlement between Licinius and Constantine | |
| Martinian | July – 19 September 324 | A senior bureaucrat, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine I | Unknown – Spring 325 Deposed by Constantine and banished to Cappadocia, later executed |
Constantinian dynasty (306–363)
Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)
Theodosian dynasty (379–457)
Last western emperors (455–476)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Petronius Maximus | 17 March – 31 May 455 | General and civil official, murdered Valentinian III and married his widow, Licinia Eudoxia | c. 397 – 31 May 455 Killed by a mob while fleeing during the Vandalic sack of Rome | |
| Avitus | 9 July 455 – 17 October 456 | General; proclaimed emperor by the Visigoths and Gallo-Romans after the death of Petronius Maximus | Late 4th century – 456/457 Defeated and deposed by the magister militum Ricimer, became a bishop. Died shortly after of either natural causes, strangulation, or being starved to death | |
| Majorian | 28 December 457 – 2 August 461 | General; proclaimed by the army, backed by Ricimer | Unknown – 7 August 461 Reconquered Gaul, Hispania and Dalmatia. Deposed and executed by Ricimer | |
| Libius Severus | 19 November 461 – 14 November 465 | Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer | Unknown – 14 November 465 Died of natural causes | |
| Anthemius | 12 April 467 – 11 July 472 | General; great-grandson of Procopius, a cousin of Julian, and husband of Marcia Euphemia, a daughter of Marcian. Proclaimed western emperor by Leo I | Unknown – 11 July 472 The last effective emperor of the West. Murdered by Gundobad after a civil war with Ricimer | |
| Olybrius | April – 2 November 472 | Husband of Placidia, a daughter of Valentinian III. Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer | Unknown – 2 November 472 Died of dropsy | |
| Glycerius | 3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474 | General; proclaimed emperor by Gundobad | Unknown lifespan Deposed by Julius Nepos and made a bishop, subsequent fate unknown | |
| Julius Nepos | 24 June 474 – 28 August 475 ----August 475 – 9 May 480 | General; married to a relative of Verina, the wife of the eastern emperor Leo I. Installed as western emperor by Leo | Unknown – 9 May 480 Fled to Dalmatia in the face of an attack by his magister militum Orestes. Continued to claim to be emperor in exile. Murdered by his retainers | |
| Romulus "Augustulus" | 31 October 475 – 4 September 476 | Proclaimed emperor by his father, the magister militum Orestes | Roughly 465 – after 507/511? The last western emperor. Deposed by the Germanic general Odoacer and retired. Possibly alive as late as 507 or 511; fate unknown |
Later Eastern emperors (457–1453)
Leonid dynasty (457–518)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Leo I "the Thracian" | 7 February 457 – 18 January 474 | Low-ranking army officer; chosen by the magister militum Aspar to succeed Marcian | 400/401 – 18 January 474 First emperor to be crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Died of dysentery | |
| Leo II "the Younger" | 18 January – November 474 | Grandson of Leo I and son of Zeno; co-emperor since 17 November 473 | 467 – November 474 Youngest emperor at the time of his death. Died of illness | |
| Zeno | 29 January 474 – 9 January 475 | Husband of Ariadne, a daughter of Leo I, and father of Leo II. Crowned senior co-emperor with the approval of the Senate | 425 – 9 April 491 Fled to Isauria in the face of a Revolt led by his mother-in-law Verina & Basiliscus. | |
| Basiliscus | 9 January 475 – August 476 | Brother of Verina, the wife of Leo I. Proclaimed emperor by his sister in opposition to Zeno and seized Constantinople | Unknown – 476/477 Deposed by Zeno upon his return to Constantinople; imprisoned in a dried-up reservoir and starved to death | |
| Zeno | August 476 – 9 April 491 | Retook the throne with the help of general Illus | 425 – 9 April 491 Saw the end of the Western Roman Empire. Died of dysentery or epilepsy | |
| Anastasius I "Dicorus" | 11 April 491 – 9 July 518 | Government official; chosen by Ariadne, whom he married, to succeed Zeno | 430/431 – 9 July 518 Oldest emperor at the time of his death. Died of natural causes |
Justinian dynasty (518–602)
Heraclian dynasty (610–695)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Heraclius | 5 October 610 – 11 February 641 | Son of Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Carthage. Led a revolt against Phocas | 574/575 – 11 February 641 Ended the Persian Wars, but suffered the loss of the Levant to the Muslims. Died of natural causes | |
| Heraclius Constantine | 11 February – 25 May 641 | Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 22 January 613 | 3 May 612 – 25 May 641 Died of tuberculosis | |
| Heraclonas | 25 May – 5 November 641 | Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 4 July 638. Co-ruler with Constantine and then sole emperor under the regency of his mother Martina | 626 – unknown Deposed, mutilated and exiled, subsequent fate unknown | |
| Constans II "the Bearded" | September 641 – 15 July 668 | Son of Heraclius Constantine; proclaimed co-emperor by Heraclonas at age 11 | 7 November 630 – 15 July 668 Lost Egypt in 641. Murdered in Sicily while bathing by supporters of Mezezius | |
| Constantine IV "the Younger" | September 668 – 10 July 685 | Son of Constans II; co-emperor since 13 April 654 | Roughly 650 – 10 July 685 Defeated the First Arab Siege of Constantinople. Died of dysentery | |
| Justinian II "Rhinotmetus" | July 685 – 695 | Son of Constantine IV, chosen as successor over Constans' sons | 668/669 – 4 November 711 Deposed and mutilated by Leontius in 695; returned to the throne in 705 |
Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Leontius | 695 – 698 | General; deposed Justinian II | Unknown – 15 February 706 Lost Africa & Carthage to the Muslims. Deposed by Tiberius III in 698 and later executed by Justinian II in 706 | |
| Tiberius III | 698 – 21 August 705 | General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Leontius | Unknown – 15 February 706 Deposed and later executed by Justinian II alongside Leontius | |
| Justinian II "Rhinotmetus" | 21 August 705 – 4 November 711 | Retook the throne with the aid of the Khazars | 668/669 – 4 November 711 Killed by supporters of Philippicus after fleeing Constantinople | |
| Philippicus | 4 November 711 – 3 June 713 | General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Justinian II | Unknown – 20 January 714/715 Deposed and blinded in favor of Anastasius II, later died of natural causes | |
| Anastasius II | 4 June 713 – fall 715 | Senior court official, proclaimed emperor after the deposition of Philippicus | Unknown – 1 June 719 Abdicated to Theodosius III after a six-month civil war, becoming a monk. Beheaded by Leo III after an attempt to retake the throne | |
| Theodosius III | Fall 715 – 25 March 717 | Tax-collector, possibly son of Tiberius III; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Anastasius II | Unknown lifespan Deposed by Leo III, whereafter he became a monk. His subsequent fate is unknown. |
Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty (717–802)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Leo III "the Isaurian" | 25 March 717 – 18 June 741 | General; deposed Theodosius III | 685 – 18 June 741 Ended Muslim expansion in Anatolia. Died of dropsy | |
| Constantine V "Copronymus" | 18 June 741 – 14 September 775 | Son of Leo III; co-emperor since 31 March 720 | 718 – 14 September 775 Last emperor to rule over Rome. Vilified by later historians for his religious policies, hence his nickname "Dung-Named". Died of a fever | |
| Artabasdos | June 741 – 2 November 743 | Husband of Anna, a daughter of Leo III. Revolted against Constantine V and briefly ruled at Constantinople | Unknown lifespan Deposed and blinded by Constantine V, relegated to a monastery where he died of natural causes | |
| Leo IV "the Khazar" | 14 September 775 – 8 September 780 | Son of Constantine V; co-emperor since 6 June 751 | 25 January 750 – 8 September 780 Died of a fever | |
| Constantine VI "the Blind" | 8 September 780 – 19 August 797 | Son of Leo IV; co-emperor since 14 April 776 | 14 January 771 – before 805 Last emperor to be recognized in the West. Deposed, blinded and exiled by Irene | |
| Irene | 19 August 797 – 31 October 802 | Widow of Leo IV and former regent of Constantine VI. Became co-ruler in 792. Dethroned and blinded her son Constantine in 797, becoming the first female ruler of the empire | c. 752 – 9 August 803 Deposed by Nikephoros I and exiled to Lesbos, where she died of natural causes |
Nikephorian dynasty (802–813)
Amorian dynasty (820–867)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Michael II "the Amorian" | 25 December 820 – 2 October 829 | General sentenced to execution by Leo V; proclaimed emperor by Leo V's assassins and crowned by Patriarch Theodotus I on the same day | 770 – 2 October 829 Saw the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily. Died of kidney failure | |
| Theophilos | 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 | Son of Michael II; co-emperor since 12 May 821 | 812/813 – 20 January 842 Died of dysentery | |
| Michael III "the Drunkard" | 20 January 842 – 24 September 867 | Son of Theophilos; co-emperor since 16 May 840. Ruled under his mother Theodora's regency until 15 March 856 | 19 January 840 – 24 September 867 The youngest emperor. Murdered by Basil I and his supporters |
Macedonian dynasty (867–1056)
Doukas dynasty (1059–1078)
Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Alexios I Komnenos | 1 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 | Nephew of Isaac I, also husband of Irene Doukaina, a grand-niece of Constantine X. General; revolted against Nikephoros III on 14 February 1081. Seized Constantinople on 1 April; crowned on 4 April | 1057 – 15 August 1118 Started the Crusades & the reconquest of Anatolia. Died of natural causes | |
| John II Komnenos "the Good" | 15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 | Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since about September 1092 | 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143 Reconquered most of Anatolia by the time of his death. Died of injuries sustained in a hunting accident, possibly assassinated | |
| Manuel I Komnenos "the Great" | 8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180 | Youngest son and allegedly designated heir of John II on his deathbed, crowned in November 1143 after a few months of having to establish his rights | 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180 Last emperor to attempt reconquests in the west. Died of natural causes | |
| Alexios II Komnenos | 24 September 1180 – c. September 1183 | Son of Manuel I; co-emperor since 1171 | 14 September 1169 – c. September 1183 Strangled on the orders of Andronikos I, body thrown in the sea | |
| [Andronikos I Komnenos|Andronikos I Komnenos] | c. September 1183 – 12 September 1185 | Son of Isaac Komnenos, a son of Alexios I. Overthrew the regency of Alexios II in April 1182, crowned co-emperor in 1183 and shortly thereafter had Alexios II murdered | c. 1118/1120 – 12 September 1185 Overthrown by Isaac II, tortured and mutilated in the imperial palace, then slowly dismembered alive by a mob in the Hippodrome |
Angelos dynasty (1185–1204)
Laskaris dynasty (1205–1261)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Theodore I Laskaris | May 1205 – November 1221 | Husband of Anna Komnene Angelina, a daughter of Alexios III. Organized resistance against the Latin Empire in Nicaea and proclaimed emperor in 1205 after the Battle of Adrianople; crowned by Patriarch Michael IV on 6 April 1208. | c. 1174 – November 1221 Died of natural causes | |
| John III Vatatzes | c. December 1221 – 3 November 1254 | Husband of Irene Laskarina, a daughter of Theodore I | c. 1192 – 3 November 1254 Started Nicaean expansionism. Died of natural causes | |
| Theodore II Laskaris | 3 November 1254 – 16 August 1258 | Son of John III and grandson of Theodore I, co-emperor since about 1235 | November 1221 – 16 August 1258 Died of epilepsy | |
| John IV Laskaris | 16 August 1258 – 25 December 1261 | Son and co-emperor of Theodore II | 25 December 1250 – c. 1305 Blinded, deposed and imprisoned by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261, died in captivity several decades later |
Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453)
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
| Michael VIII Palaiologos | 1 January 1259 – 11 December 1282 | Great-grandson of Alexios III; became regent for John IV in 1258 and crowned co-emperor in 1259. Regained Constantinople on 25 July 1261, entered the city on 15 August. Became sole ruler after deposing John IV on 25 December | 1224/1225 – 11 December 1282 Died of dysentery | |
| Andronikos II Palaiologos | 11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328 | Son of Michael VIII; named co-emperor shortly after 1261, crowned on 8 November 1272 | 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332 Deposed by his grandson Andronikos III in 1328 and became a monk, dying of natural causes four years later | |
| Michael IX Palaiologos | 21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320 | Son and co-ruler of Andronikos II, named co-emperor in 1281, crowned on 21 May 1294 | 17 April 1277/1278 – 12 October 1320 Allegedly died of grief due to the accidental murder of his second son, probably died of natural causes | |
| Andronikos III Palaiologos | 24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341 | Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor between 1308 and 1313. Fought with his grandfather Andronikos II for power from April 1321 onwards. Crowned emperor on 2 February 1325, became sole emperor after deposing Andronikos II | 25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341 Last Emperor to effectively control Greece. Died of sudden illness, possibly malaria | |
| John V Palaiologos | 15 June 1341 – 16 February 1391 | Son of Andronikos III, not formally crowned until 19 November 1341. Dominated by regents until 1354, faced numerous usurpations and civil wars throughout his long reign | 18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391 Reigned almost 50 years, but only held effective power for 33. Lost almost all territories outside Constantinople. Died of natural causes | |
| John VI Kantakouzenos | 8 February 1347 – 10 December 1354 | Related to the Palaiologoi through his mother. Proclaimed by the army on 26 October 1341, became regent and senior co-emperor after a lengthy civil war with John V's mother, Anna of Savoy. Entered Constantinople on 8 February, crowned on 21 May 1347 | 1295 – 15 June 1383 Deposed by John V in another civil war and retired, becoming a monk. Died of natural causes several decades later | |
| Andronikos IV Palaiologos | 12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379 May 1381 – June 1385 | Son of John V and grandson of John VI; named co-emperor and heir in 1352, but imprisoned and partially blinded after a failed rebellion in May 1373. Rebelled again and successfully deposed his father in 1376; not formally crowned until 18 October 1377 | 11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385 Deposed by John V in 1379; fled to Galata in exile but was restored as co-emperor and heir in May 1381, ruling over Selymbria and the coast of Marmara. Rebelled again in June 1385 but died shortly thereafter | |
| John VII Palaiologos | June 1385 – April 1390 14 April – 17 September 1390 late 1403 – 22 September 1408 | Son of Andronikos IV, co-emperor since 1377; usurped the throne from John V in 1390. Deposed shortly thereafter but granted Thessalonica by Manuel II in 1403, from where he once more ruled as emperor until his death | 1370 – 22 September 1408 Ruled Constantinople as regent in 1399–1403 during Manuel II's absence. Died of natural causes | |
| Manuel II Palaiologos | Autumn 1382 – April 1387 16 February 1391 – 21 July 1425 | Son of John V and grandson of John VI; co-emperor since 25 September 1373 | 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425 Suffered a stroke in 1422, whereafter the government was run by his son, John VIII. Died of natural causes | |
| John VIII Palaiologos | 21 July 1425 – 31 October 1448 | Son of Manuel II; co-emperor by 1407 and full emperor since 19 January 1421 | 18 December 1392 – 31 October 1448 Died of natural causes | |
| Constantine XI Palaiologos | 6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453 | Son of Manuel II and favored successor of his brother John VIII. Crowned emperor in Mystras on 6 January 1449, entered Constantinople on 12 March. | 8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453 The last Roman emperor. Died in battle at the fall of Constantinople. |
Other claims to the Roman imperial title
| Subject | Description |
| Roman usurpers | Roman usurpers were individuals or groups of individuals who obtained or tried to obtain power by force and without legitimate legal authority. Usurpation was endemic during the Roman imperial era, especially from the crisis of the third century onwards, when political instability became the rule. A number of individuals proclaimed themselves emperor, but are not considered as legitimate emperors because they did not oust the ruling emperor, or did not establish control of the whole empire, or were not accepted by the senate or other imperial colleagues. |
| Byzantine usurpers | Roman usurpers were individuals or groups of individuals who obtained or tried to obtain power by force and without legitimate legal authority. Usurpation was endemic during the Roman imperial era, especially from the crisis of the third century onwards, when political instability became the rule. A number of individuals proclaimed themselves emperor, but are not considered as legitimate emperors because they did not oust the ruling emperor, or did not establish control of the whole empire, or were not accepted by the senate or other imperial colleagues. |
| Holy Roman Emperors | The Holy Roman Emperor was the ruler and head of state of the Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne was crowned imperator romanorum by Pope Leo III in AD 800. In so doing, the Pope rejected the legitimacy of Empress Irene. The Byzantines never recognized the Holy Roman emperors as "Roman emperors" and called them the 'emperor of the Franks', to them only the Byzantine Senate and/or the Byzantine military had the right to appoint a new Roman Emperor. Likewise, Western Europeans didn't recognize the legitimacy of the Byzantine emperors and called them the 'emperor of the Greeks' or the 'emperor of Constantinople'. See also: Problem of two emperors |
| Latin Emperors | The Latin Emperor was the ruler of the Latin Empire, the historiographical convention for the Crusader realm, established in Constantinople after the Fourth Crusade and lasting until the city was recovered by the Byzantine Greeks in 1261. Its name derives from its Catholic and Western European nature. The empire, whose official name was Imperium Romaniae, claimed the direct heritage of the Eastern Roman Empire, which had most of its lands taken and partitioned by the crusaders. This claim however was disputed by the Byzantine Greek successor states, the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus. Out of these three, the Nicaeans succeeded in displacing the Latin emperors in 1261 and restored the Byzantine Empire. |
| Trapezuntine emperors | The Trapezuntine emperors were the rulers of the Empire of Trebizond, one of the successor states of the Byzantine Empire founded after the Fourth Crusade in 1204, until its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1461. The rulers of Trebizond called themselves Megas Komnenos and – like their counterparts in the other two Byzantine successor states, the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus – initially claimed supremacy as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans". However, after Michael VIII Palaiologos of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople in 1261, the Komnenian use of the style "Emperor" became a sore point. In September 1282, at Constantinople, John II of Trebizond relinquished his claim and accepted the title despot. His successors used a variant of the imperial title, "Emperor and Autocrat of all the East, the Iberians, and the Transmarine Provinces" until the Empire's end in 1461. |
| Emperors of Thessalonica | The emperors of Thessalonica were the rulers of the Empire of Thessalonica, a historiographic term to refer to the short-lived state centred on the city of Thessalonica between 1224 and 1246 and ruled by the Komnenodoukas of Epirus. |
| Despots of Epirus | The despot of Epirus was the ruler of the Despotate of Epirus, one of the successor states of the Byzantine Empire in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. The name "Despotate of Epirus" is a modern historiographical name and was not used at the time. Some rulers used the version "despot of Romania" or "despot of the Romans". |
| Ottoman sultans | Based on the concept of right of conquest, the sultans of the Ottoman Empire claimed to be the legitimate Roman Emperors, in succession to the Byzantine emperors who had previously ruled from Constantinople. This claim was recognized by the Islamic world, but was never recognized by the Western Europeans. See Ottoman claim to Roman succession |
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