List of pharaohs
The pharaohs were the rulers of Ancient Egypt from the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt 3100 BC, with several times of fragmentation and foreign rule. The specific title of "pharaoh" was not used until the Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom], 1400 BC, but it is retroactively applied to all Egyptian kings; the generic term for monarchs was "nesut". In addition to these titles, pharaohs had a complex royal titulary that remained relatively constant during its 3000-year history, having up to five royal names.
Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by the Kingdom of Kush in the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the pharaonic titulature and became the 25th Dynasty. Following 100 years of Kushite rule, Egypt experienced another century of independent native rule before being conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The last native pharaoh was Nectanebo II of the short-lived 30th Dynasty, which ended when the Persians conquered Egypt for a second time in 342 BC. The Persians were in turn conquered by the Macedonian Greeks of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after which Egypt was ruled by the Hellenic pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Their rule came to an end with the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, and pharaonic Egypt cesased to be an independent monarchy. However, Roman emperors continued to be accorded pharaonic titles by the Egyptians until the reign of Maximinus Daza in 313 AD.
The dates provided for most of Egypt's early history are only approximate and may vary depending on the author, sometimes by centuries. The names and order of kings is mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universities database developed by the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. For royal titles and hieroglyphs, see the handbook of Jürgen von Beckerath, as well as the website Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, which itself contains extensive bibliography.
Regnal numbers did not exist in Ancient Egypt and is a modern way to distinguish pharaohs who shared the same personal name.
Ancient Egyptian king lists
Royal lists after the Fifth Dynasty give only the throne name of each pharaoh, which has often led to confusion in identifying particular kings. The most detailed king lists, the Abydos, Saqqara and Turin canons, date to the New Kingdom, also known as the Ramesside period. Unfortunately, most of these Ramesside lists are of little value for the early dynasties, as they feature corrupted names and often disagree with contemporary sources. Complete king lists were certainly made after the 20th dynasty, but they have been lost.The following king list are known:
- Den seal impressions ; found on a cylinder seal in Den's tomb. It lists all 1st Dynasty kings from Narmer to Den by their Horus names.
- Qa'a seal impressions ; found in Qa'a's tomb. It lists all eight kings of the 1st Dynasty by their Horus names.
- Tomb of Sekhemkare ; records five kings from Khafre to Sahure; the contemporary tomb of Netjerpunesut also includes Djedefre.
- Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom ; carved on an stele. Recorded the individual years of about 30 kings from Menes to at least Kakai. Broken into small pieces, mostly known for the Palermo Stone.
- Giza writing board ; painted on gypsum and cedar wood. Records 6 kings of various dynasties.
- South Saqqara Stone ; carved on a black basalt slab. Recorded the reigns of the first 5 kings of the Sixth Dynasty; the stone was later reused and thus almost all of the original text is lost.
- Wadi Hammamat king list ; records five kings of the Fourth Dynasty.
- Karnak King List ; carved on limestone at the Festival Hall of Thutmose III. Lists 61 kings from Sneferu, but with no apparent order and omitting several names. 39 names have been lost.
- Tomb of Amenmose ; lists Mentuhotep II and 11 kings from Ahmose I to Seti I.Abydos King List ; carved at the Temple of Seti I. Very detailed, but omitting some kings from the First Intermediate Period and all from the Second. Records a total of 76 kings from Menes. A similar but damaged list is found in the Abydos temple of Ramesses II, Seti's son and successor.Saqqara Tablet, carved on limestone in a private tomb. Very detailed, lists 68 kings from Anedjib until Ramesses II.Turin King List ; written on a papyrus dating to the reign of Ramesses II. Listed every known king with their exact reign length, and divided some of them into groups similar to Manetho's dynasties. The document itself is a sloppy copy of a much more detailed original, which is in turn based on much older sources. The document is today damaged and incomplete, with most of the last sections missing. The papyrus lists 223 kings, but only about of the names have survived. The original likely included further kings until Ramesses II.
- Table of Qenhirkhopshef ; found in the Karnak complex. Lists 17 kings from Senakhtenre Ahmose to Ramesses II.
- Tomb of Khabekhnet ; lists Mentuhotep II and five kings from Senakhtenre Ahmose to Amenhotep I alongside other family members.
- Ramesseum king list ; carved in the mortuary temple of Ramesses II, lists Menes and most of the New Kingdom pharaohs.
- Medinet Habu king list ; carved in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III, very similar to the Ramesseum king list.
- Tomb of Inherkhau ; records seven kings of the New Kingdom until Ramesses IV alongside other family members.
- Genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet ; carved on a limestone dating to the reign of Shoshenq V, today damaged. Not an actual king list; it mentions at least 18 kings from Mentuhotep II to Psusennes I.
Manetho
Before the decipherment of Egyptian scripts in the early 19th century, Manetho's Aegyptiaca, written in Greek in the early 3rd century BC, was the sole source for all ancient Egyptian history. Manetho, himself an Egyptian priest, recorded the entirety of his country's history from mythological times until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BC. He also created the dynastic framework still used by modern scholars, as well as coining the term "dynasty" itself. The original work is now lost and survives only through later epitomes and quotations, chiefly in the writings of Josephus, Julius Africanus, and Eusebius. These summaries transmit primarily chronological data in the form of regnal lists, though Josephus' quotations show that Manetho originally included detailed narratives, regnal lengths in years and months, and even alternate royal names.Africanus' epitome, which is preserved by George Syncellus, is generally regarded as the most reliable, while that of Eusebius is considered more problematic, having been derived from an incomplete and already corrupted source. All surviving transmissions suffer from errors, inconsistencies in regnal totals, variant name spellings, and a failure to account for contemporaneous dynasties—whether due to Manetho himself or to later copyists. Josephus, Africanus, and Eusebius all used independent, and sometimes contradictory, versions of the same work, each copy adding a new layer of typos and corruptions.
The content of the Aegyptiaca must be treated with caution. Manetho likely blended historical tradition with mythology, and later Christian authors are known to have altered Manetho's figures, especially for the Second Intermediate Period, to accommodate events into the Biblical narrative. Additional distortion arose from the transmission of Egyptian royal names into Greek and from repeated copying over centuries. Despite these limitations, Manetho remains a foundational source for Egyptian chronology, provided his data are critically evaluated and corroborated with archaeological and contemporary evidence.
Some fragments of Egyptian history are also covered by some Greek historians such a Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus.
Number of kings
The Turin King List records 207 kings up to the end of Dynasty XVI. In addition, it preserves 16 damaged names that Kim Ryholt associates with the so-called Abydos Dynasty, totaling 223 kings in the preserved papyrus. The original document, however, likely extended until the reign of Ramesses II, just as the Saqqara and Ramesseum king lists. On this basis, the Turin King List probably listed at least 27 additional rulers: nine of Dynasty XVII, fifteen of Dynasty XVIII, and the first three kings of Dynasty XIX, yielding a minimum total of 250 kings.The papyrus also contains several lacunae, explicit gaps marked by the Ramesside scribes when names in their sources were illegible. Ryholt estimates that these lacunae represent at least 12 missing kings: six for Dynasty XIII, and at least six for Dynasty XIV. In addition, there is a lacuna in Column 5.15 that very likely corresponds to Manetho's Dynasty VII, consisting of 10 additional kings recorded only in the Abydos King List. There are also two instances of fictitious kings, both in Dynasty IV. Taking this into account, the total rises to at least 227 kings up to the end of Dynasty XVI, 243 up to the end of the Abydos Dynasty, and 270 until Ramesses II. Even these figures likely remain conservative, since a small number of ephemeral or disputed rulers —such as Sneferka or Ba at the end of Dynasty I— were probably omitted altogether.
Including the subsequent periods of native and foreign rule, the total of kings reaches more than 300 before the first Persian conquest, which closely aligns with Herodotus' statement that, following Menes, Egypt was ruled by "three hundred and thirty kings, whose names the priests recited from a papyrus roll".:100 Manetho's own total of kings is roughly 360 kings in 5470 years, but the sum of individual reigns amounts to more than 500 kings in 5370 years. Diodorus Siculus writes that mortal kings have ruled Egypt for "a little less than five thousand years".
Royal names and titulature
The first Egyptian kings were known by their Horus name, with additional Nebty and Golden Horus honorifics. From the late First Dynasty onwards, kings began to use a throne name known in English as the [Prenomen (Ancient Egypt)|prenomen], which was the main name used during the Fourth Dynasty as well as the royal name found in most king-lists. The next dynasty introduced the [Nomen (ancient Egypt)|nomen], which is often understood as a personal name. This is the name used by scholars after the Fifth Dynasty, as well as the name used by Manetho for most pharaohs. Given the confusing nature of royal names, only kings who are recorded with their two cartouche names can be securely identified. Throne names assigned to pre-Fifth Dynasty pharaohs are sometimes referred to as "personal names" by scholars, as there was probably no distinction between throne and personal names at the time. For a listing and description of all royal names, from Predynastic to Ptolemaic times, see.Protodynastic Period
The Protodynastic Period of Egypt spans from the formation of the first Egyptian states about 3300 BC to about 3000 BC, when Egypt was first unified as a single kingdom by the rulers of Upper Egypt. Before this, both Lower and Upper Egypt were divided into several small kingdoms. The terms "Lower Egypt" and "Upper Egypt" are based on the direction of the Nile's flow, which is north. Consequently, "Lower Egypt" is located north, while "Upper Egypt" is located south.Lower Egypt
Lower Egypt geographically consists of the northern Nile and the Nile delta.The Palermo Stone mentions 14 predynastic pharaohs from Lower Egypt. These may be mythical kings or semi-gods preserved through oral tradition, or posthumous names of earlier pharaohs. The original document likely contained rulers for Upper Egypt as well.
Other rulers include:
| Image | Name | Notes |
| Double Falcon | A symbol found in Southern Palestine, Northwest Sinai, East Delta, Tura, and even Abydos. May represent a generic royal title. | |
| Hedju-Hor | A symbol found in Tura, and the eastern Nile Delta. Disputed reading, Hornung called him "Trio", while Wilkinson used a placeholder name. | |
| Ny-Hor | A symbol found in Tura. Thought by some to be a different rendering of the name "Narmer", more likely predynastic rulers. | |
| Hat-Hor | A symbol found in Tarkhan, Cairo. Thought by some to be a different rendering of the name "Narmer", may not be a royal name. | |
| Ni-Neith | A symbol found in Helwan, Cairo. Reading of name is uncertain. | |
| Crocodile | A symbol found in Tarkhan and Abydos; identity and existence are disputed. | |
| Wash | Probably from Buto; potentially a name in the Narmer Palette. Some disagree and argue that the Palette is only symbolic. |
Other potential rulers, most of which have only placeholder names, have also been proposed by Günter Dreyer, but this is disputed.
Upper Egypt
Upper Egypt refers to the region up-river to the south of Lower Egypt. There were at least three policies by the Naqada II period : Thinis, Naqada and Hierakonpolis.| Image | Name | Notes |
| A | Only known from a graffiti discovered in the Western Desert in 2004. | |
| – | Finger Snail | The existence of this king is very doubtful. |
| – | Fish | Only known from artifacts that bear his mark. |
| Elephant | Also called "Pe" or "Pen"; may not be a king. | |
| – | Stork | Perhaps a ruler attested in Tomb U-j, Abydos. |
| – | Taurus | Perhaps a ruler attested in the Bull Palette. |
| Scorpion I | Perhaps a ruler attested in Tomb U-j, Abydos. | |
| Iry-Hor | Alternatively Ra; possibly ruled before King Ka. His tomb was discovered in 2012. | |
| Ka | Alternatively Sechen. Correct chronological position unclear. | |
| Scorpion II | Known for the Scorpion Macehead. Waged war in the Delta and possibly began the unification of Egypt. Replaced the capital of Hierakonpolis with Thinis. Radiocarbon dating indicates that he lived 3350–3150 BC. Perhaps the same ruler as Scorpion I. |
While the early dynasties were aware of their pre-dynastic history, this appears to have been all but forgotten by the Ramessid period. Later sources refer to the Menes/Narmer as the first "human king", succeeding the gods that ruled Egypt for times immemorial. Later tradition also identified him as the founder of Memphis, when in fact the city had existed since before the reign of Iry-Hor.
Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100–2700 BC)
The sole "contemporary" source for early dynastic chronology is the Palermo Stone and its associated fragments. The Turin King List, is not considered reliable for this period, as it often contradicts contemporary sources. The annals are badly damaged, and only a few names are explicitly recorded, leading to several and divergent reconstructions over the decades. Unless otherwise noted, the reconstruction follows. Lastly, it's worth noting that virtually all transliterations are just approximations ; certain spellings may change depending on the author.First Dynasty
Ancient sources, including Manetho, assign eight rulers to the First Dynasty, a fact confirmed by the records in the necropolis of Qa'a, the last pharaoh. The tombs of all pharaohs, including queen Merneith, are located in the necropolis of Umm El Qa'ab, Abydos. The first two dynasties originated from the lost city of Thinis, and ruled from Memphis according to later traditions.Manetho correctly assigns eight kings to this dynasty, but his order and naming are troublesome. Ramesside king lists, made 1000 years later, identify all eight kings with throne names, but none of them match contemporary records. Throne names were introduced by the fifth king, so the first names must be later additions, possibly posthumous epithets. As noted before, the dynasty must have begun 3100 BC, ± 150 years.
Proposed dates: 3007–2828, 2920–2770, 3000–2750, 3000–2890, 2900–2730
Comparison of royal lists:
Second Dynasty
The following table follows the royal records of the Saqqara and Turin lists, which coincide with Manetho in recording nine kings. Following the reign of Nynetjer, the country was split and remained so until the reign of Khasekhemwy. The five Ramesside names between Nynetjer and Khasekhemwy cannot be securely correlated with contemporary rulers, leading to much confusion in the correct identification of rulers. The tombs of the first three pharaohs were found in Saqqara, while those of Seth-Peribsen and Khasekhemwy were found in Umm El Qa'ab.Proposed dates: 2828–2682, 2770–2649 BC, 2750–2650 BC, 2890–2686, 2730–2590 BC
'''Comparison of royal lists'''
Old Kingdom (c. 2700–2200 BC)
The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three "golden ages", interspersed between three periods of fragmentation known as "intermediate periods". The capital during the period of the Old Kingdom was also Memphis. According to radiocarbon dating, the Old Kingdom began sometime around the mid-27th century BC, possibly between 2676 and 2643 BC, but with more certainty between 2691 and 2625 BC.Third Dynasty
Ancient sources assign five rulers to the Third Dynasty, but there is uncertainty regarding their exact order and chronology. Both the Turin and Abydos king lists claim that the Third Dynasty was founded by Nebka, hence his position in some modern lists. However, archeological evidence has shown that the founder was in fact Djoser, who is correctly identified as its first king in the Saqqara Tablet. The dynasty ruled 74 years according to the Turin King List, but its numbers do not match with the earlier Palermo Stone; the actual duration may be as low as 50 years.Proposed dates: 2682–2614 BC, 2649–2575 BC, 2686–2600 BC, 2686–2613 BC, 2592–2544 BC
| Image | Horus name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Netjerikhet | Djoser | Best known under his posthumous name of Djoser; recorded in contemporary sources as Netjerikhet. Possibly a son of Khasekhemwy. Commissioned the first Pyramid, created by chief architect Imhotep, who was later deified. According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2691–2625 BC. | 28 years | |
| 2 | Sekhemkhet | Teti | Commissioned the Buried Pyramid, which was left unfinished due to his short reign. | 7 years | |
| 3 | Sanakht | Nebka | Brother of Djoser; almost certainly the Horus name of Nebka, the 3rd ruler in the Saqqara Tablet. Sometimes placed 4th. The Turin King List places Nebka and Djoser as the first pharaohs and gives them the same reign length, which is likely a copyist error. | 24 years | |
| 4 | Khaba | "Sedjes" "Hudjefa II" | Ramessid sources do not give the name of the 4th ruler, instead using the placeholder Sedjes and Hudjefa. It may refer to Horus-Khaba. Commissioned the unfinished Layer Pyramid during his short reign. | 24 years | |
| 5 | Qahedjet | Huni | First well-attested throne name; identified by Wilkinson as Qahedjet. Commissioned the Meidum Pyramid. | 24 years |
Fourth Dynasty
The Fourth Dynasty is renowned for its colossal monuments and pyramids, most notably the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. While the first four kings are well attested, there is some uncertainty regarding the successors of Khafre in later sources. However, the tomb of Sekhemkare, vizier and son of Khafre, records the correct succession from Khafre Sahure. Sekhemkare supposedly lived under five pharaohs, which implies that the latter kings did not reign long. Some tales of this period were recorded by the Greek historian Herodotus, although he notably places it after the New Kingdom period.The exact chronology of this dynasty is disputed, as scholars disagree whether cattle counts were made annually or biennially at this time. The following numbers assume most were annual.
Proposed dates: 2614–2479 BC, 2575–2465 BC, 2600–2450 BC, 2613–2494 BC, 2543–2436 BC
'''Comparison of royal lists:'''
Fifth Dynasty
Starting with the reign of Neferirkare Kakai, pharaohs became mainly known by two names, a regnal and personal name. The pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty onwards are generally known by their nomen alone.All variants of Manetho refer to the Fifth Dynasty as "kings from Elephantine". This is probably a misreading of "Sakhebu", a city near Heliopolis that was likely the hometown of Userkaf.
Proposed dates: 2479–2322 BC, 2465–2323 BC, 2450–2300 BC, 2494–2345 BC, 2435–2306 BC
'''Comparison of royal lists'''
Sixth Dynasty
By the Fifth Dynasty, the religious institution had established itself as the dominant force in society; a trend of growth in the bureaucracy and the priesthood, and a decline in the pharaoh's power had been established during Neferirkare Kakai's reign. During Djedkare Isesi's rule, officials were endowed with greater authority—evidenced by the opulent private tombs they constructed—eventually leading to the creation of a feudal system in effect. These established trends—decentralization of authority, coupled with growth in bureaucracy—intensified during the three decades of Unas's rule, which also witnessed economic decline.Proposed dates: 2322–2191 BC, 2323–2150 BC, 2300–2181 BC, 2345–2181 BC, 2305–2118 BC
Comparison of royal lists
According to Africanus, the total sum for the kings of the First through Sixth dynasties amounts to 1497 years, but the actual sum of items gives 1478. Eusebius closely follows Africanus and records 1498 total years, but the actual sum of his numbers is 1504. This may imply that the summation figures are more accurate than the individual reigns.
The Turin King List records a total of 52 kings up to Neferirkare, that is, 45 kings from Menes to Merenre Nemtyemsaf II, although the list includes two fictitious kings in the Fourth Dynasty, thus totaling 43 kings. Africanus records a total of 48 kings, while Eusebius records about 70. This discrepancy is the result of a misunderstanding of the text, as later both Eusebius and Africanus record 192 kings before the Twelfth Dynasty.
First Intermediate Period (c. 2200–2050 BC)
The Old Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death of Pepi II Neferkare, who supposedly reigned up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were probably marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. This was further exacerbated by the 4.2-kiloyear event, a climate shift around 2200 BC which caused widespread desertification and famine.The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After a couple of decades, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based in Heracleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based at Thebes revolted against their Northern overlords and united Upper Egypt. The Theban pharaoh Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of Intef III, defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom.
Seventh and Eighth Dynasties
Africanus and Eusebius record 70 kings in 70 days, which is clearly an embellishment. Some historians dismiss the existence of a Seventh Dynasty, while others argue it could correspond to the "lacuna of 6 years" recorded in the Turin King List. The following tables are based on, which is itself based on the Abydos King List. The Turin King List only records Netjerkare Siptah and the last 6 names. This line ruled from Memphis, and it is thought that it lasted only about one generation, or about 30 years. Manetho reports 27 kings for the Eighth Dynasty; the number may be a corruption of "17 kings", the total of kings for this line.The Turin King List records the years from Teti until Neferirkare as 181 years, 6 months, 3 days, with a lacuna of 6 years, totaling 187 years. The total from Menes is given as 52 kings amounting to 955 years and 15 days, but the number of years is certainly inflated. Diodorus Siculus, most likely based on a similar tradition, writes that Menes was succeeded by 52 kings that ruled for 1040 years.:45 For the sum of the first eight dynasties, Manetho and Eusebius record 1639 and 1598 years, respectively, but these figures do not match the previous sums.
Ninth and Tenth Dynasties
Africanus records 19 kings for 409 years, but only lists one Achthoes, a tyrant who was killed by a crocodile. Meanwhile, Eusebius records 4 kings in 100 years. For the next dynasty, they both record 19 kings for 185 years, but list none. It is possible that the 9th and 10th dynasties were in fact a single dynasty that was duplicated by Manetho, resulting in two Heracleopolean dynasties of 19 kings. The Turin King List records an unbroken line of 18 kings, but almost all names, as well as the sum of regnal years, are damaged. A break between dynasties, while still possible, can't be pinpointed with any certainty.Eleventh Dynasty (Thebes)
According to Hornung, the Theban monarchy began no more than 40 years after the fall of the Old Kingdom.Manetho writes:
Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1800 BC)
The kings of the 11th Dynasty ruled from Thebes and the kings of the 12th Dynasty ruled from Itjtawy, near Lisht. The periodization of the Middle Kingdom is somewhat disputed; some authors include only the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties, while others include the Eleventh, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties.Egyptian chronology becomes more reliable from this point onward, although dates still differ depending on the author. The reign of Senusret III can securely be dated to the middle of the 19th century BC, thus dating the beginning of the 12th dynasty to the mid 20th century BC, and the 11th dynasty to the mid 21st century BC. This is supported by radiocarbon dating, which shows that the Middle Kingdom likely began in the range of 2057–2040 BC, with more certainty between 2064 and 2019 BC. The accession of Senusret III is dated to 1884–1860 BC, with more certainty between 1889 and 1836 BC.
Eleventh Dynasty cont.
The Turin King List records the duration of the whole dynasty as 143 years, starting with Mentuhotep I, and 70 years starting with Mentuhotep II.Proposed dates: 2046–1995, 2061–1991 BC, 2046–1976 BC, 2055–1985 BC, 2009–1940 BC
Twelfth Dynasty
Starting from the Twelfth Dynasty, pharaohs often appointed their heirs as co-rulers before their own death. This is one of the main obstacles when reconstructing the chronology of Ancient Egypt. According to radiocarbon dating, the dynasty certainly began between the years 2000 and 1950 BC, perhaps around 1980 BC. The Turin King List gives the sum of years as 213, but does not take co-regencies into account.Proposed dates: 1976–1794/3 BC, 1991–1783, 1985–1773, 1939–1760 BC
| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Amenemhat I | Sehetepibre | Vizier of Mentuhotep IV. Moved the capital from Thebes to Itjtawy and was buried in a pyramid at Lisht. Also formally introduced the concept of co-regencies in the monarchy. Like his predecessor, his reign ended with his assassination at the hands of court officials. | 29 years | |
| 2 | Senusret I | Kheperkare | Co-ruled 10 regnal years with his father, learned of his murder while campaigning in Lybia and returned to the capital to avenge him, continuing to rule over a prosperous Egypt. | 45 years | |
| 3 | Amenemhat II | Nubkaure | Faced the opposition of powerful nomarchs who attempted to regain power. Probably co-ruled 2–3 years with his father. However, this has been refuted by some scholars. | 35 years | |
| 4 | Senusret II | Khakheperre | Co-ruled for 3 years with his father. Revitalized cultivation in Faiyum and gained the support of local elites. Also expanded Egyptian influence in the region, particularly over Syria and Nubia. | 7–8 years | |
| 5 | Senusret III | Khakaure | His accession has been traditionally dated to 1878 BC, but this is rejected by modern scholars. Radiocarbon dating provides the range 1889–1836 BC. One of the most famed and powerful pharaohs, a great warrior and administrator. Tales of his Nubian conquest were likely one of the origins of the legendary Sesostris recorded by Herodotus. | 38 years 1850 BC, ± 25 years | |
| 6 | Amenemhat III | Nimaatre | Co-ruled 20 years with his father. Also considered a great ruler, ruling at the zenith of the Middle Kingdom. | 45 years | |
| 7 | Amenemhat IV | Maakherure | Co-ruled for around 1 year with his father. Continued the family's project at Faiyum, but did not leave many written records. | 9 years 3 months, 27 days | |
| 8 | Sobekneferu♀ | Sobekkare | First confirmed female pharaoh. To strengthen her position she retroactively claimed to be her father's chosen heir and co-regent, while in reality she ascended the throne only after the death of her brother-husband, in the absence of male heirs. Perhaps the owner of the Northern Mazghuna pyramid, although she did not use it. | 3 years 10 months, 24 days |
'''Manethonian royal lists'''
Second Intermediate Period (c. 1800–1550 BC)
Reconstructing the chronology of the Second Intermediate Period is even more difficult than the First, as there are very few and contradictory records. The Turin King List is the only one to include rulers of this period, but it is badly damaged after the Twelfth Dynasty. This period is best known for the rule of the Fifteenth Dynasty established by the Hyksos people of West Asia. It was a time of political rather than social upheavals.At some point during the weak Thirteenth Dynasty, the provincial ruling family in Xois, located in the Nile Delta, broke away to form Fourteenth Dynasty. Around the same time, the Asiatic people known as the Hyksos established themselves around the Delta, and soon after took control of Avaris, beginning Fifteenth Dynasty. The Hyksos took over most of Lower Egypt and ended the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties. They were also known as the "Great Hyksos" because of their dominance. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt enabled the Sixteenth Dynasty to declare independence in Thebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos shortly thereafter. Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, a new native Egyptian house in Thebes set itself up as Seventeenth. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia, starting the New Kingdom.
Thirteenth Dynasty
As opposed to the previous dynasty, there are little to no historical records regarding this dynasty, with only a few kings leaving archeological records. The dynasty possibly originates from Canaan, as some rulers are called "Asiatics". Merneferre Ay, while not the final pharaoh, was the last king attested in Lower and Upper Egypt, later pharaohs are only attested in the south.Manetho records "60 kings of Diospolis for 453 years". Notably, the number of kings appears to be somewhat correct, as the Turin King List records a minimum of 51 kings, which Ryholt rises to 57. However, only the first half of the names survives, and the reign lengths are also damaged. Manetho's total of 453 years is sometimes emended as 153, but there is no definitive proof of this. According to radiocarbon dating, the Thirteenth Dynasty began between the years 1800 and 1740 BC. According to Hornung, Ay's reign ended around 1650 BC, at least 100 years after the beginning of the dynasty.
The succession is based on the reconstruction of Kim Ryholt. Almost all kings reigned for a very short time, for about 1 to 3 years each. Ryholt also suggests that the division by Manetho is based not on a familiar break, but because of the rise of the Dynasty XIV. The exact succession of rulers is highly disputed.
Proposed dates: 1794/3–1648/5, 1793/73–after 1650/40+, 1760–1630 BC, 1803–1649 BC
'''Complete royal list of Dynasty XIII'''
Fourteenth Dynasty (Xois)
Manetho records "76 kings of Xois for 184 years". Ryholt argues that these kings ruled from Avaris, but there is no strong evidence for this. Almost nothing is known about the dynasty, and all its rulers appear to have had very short reigns. The following is the royal succession according to the Turin King List. The document records a minimum of 51 kings, many of whom ruled alongside Dynasties XIII and XV. They were also of Near Eastern origin.Only four rulers are contemporarily attested: Nehesy, Nebsenre, Merdjefare, and Sekheperenre. Beckerath, who mostly agrees with Ryholt, records 16 additional names of disputed identity. This dynasty notably includes some of the shortest recorded reigns; the shortest being that of Sekheperenre, which is also the shortest reign of a native pharaoh.
Proposed dates: unknown– 1645, 1773–1650, 1805–1649
Fifteenth Dynasty (Hyksos)
The "Hyksos", literally meaning "rulers of foreign lands", were people who emerged from the Fertile Crescent and conquered much of Lower Egypt, as well as parts of Middle Egypt. They were excluded from contemporary Egyptian sources because they were perceived as foreign usurpers. The Turin King List records 6 rulers of foreign lands ruling for roughly 150 years, but the list is very damaged and much of the information is now lost. Manetho, as quoted by Josephus, reported six "shepherd kings from Phoenicia" ruling for 254 years. The following is the tentative reconstruction of Kim Ryholt, based on attested names bearing the title of "Hyksos".Proposed dates: 1648/5–1539/6 BC, 1650–1550 BC, 1649–1532, unknown– 1530 BC, 1649–1540,
| Image | Egyptian name | Greek name | Notes | |
| 1 | Semqen | Salitis Σάλιτις | Position and identity uncertain. | |
| 2 | Aperanat | Beon Βηων | Position and identity uncertain. | |
| 3 | Khyan | Apachnas Aπαχνας | Position and identity uncertain. | |
| 4 | Sakir-Har | Iannas Iαννας | Ruled 10+ years according to the Turin King List. The name of his son, Yanassi, may have been confused with his own by Manetho. | |
| 5 | Apepi | Apophis Aπωφις | Ruled 40+ years according to the Turin King List. | |
| 6 | Khamudi | Assis Aσσις | Only name in the Turin King List; defeated by Ahmose I. |
Reconstructions of Dynasty XV
| # | Turin King List | Manetho | Ryholt | Beckerath | Clayton | Bunson | Hornung |
| 1 | Lost | Salitis — 13 years | Semqen | Salitis | Sheshi | Salitis | Sarà-Dagan |
| 2 | Lost | Beon — 44 years | Aperanat | Beon | Yaqub-Har | Sheshi | *Bin-'Anu |
| 3 | Lost | Apachnas — 36y, 7m | Khyan | Apakhnas | Khyan | Yaqub-Har | Hajran |
| 4 | Lost — 10+ years | Apophis — 61y, 2m | Sakir-Har | Khyan | Apepi I | Khyan | Jinassi-Ad |
| 5 | Lost — 40+ years | Iannas — 50y, 1m | Apepi | Apepi | Apepi (II) | Apepi | Apepi |
| 6 | Khamudi | Assis — 49 years | Khamudi | Khamudi | – | Khamudi | Khamudi |
Manetho's Dynasties XV to XVII
| Manetho's original | Josephus | Africanus | Eusebius | |
| Dynasty XV | 6 shepherd kings | 6 shepherd kings, 254 years | 6 shepherd kings, 284 years | Kings of Thebes, 250 years |
| Dynasty XVI | 32 shepherd kings | – | 32 shepherd kings, 518 years | 5 kings of Thebes, 190 years |
| Dynasty XVII | 5 kings of Thebes | – | 43 shepherd & Theban, 151 years | shepherd kings, 103 years |
| Total | 43 shepherds & Theban | Total: 511 years | Total: 953 years | Total: 543 years |
The versions of Manetho differ significantly for this period. Eusebius notably places the rulers of Africanus' Dynasty XV to Dynasty XVII, likely to accommodate his Biblical chronology. According to Josephus, the Hyksos domination, that is, the period between Dynasties XV until the end of Dynasty XVII, lasted 511 years, while Africanus attributes 518 years to Dynasty XVI alone. This is likely the summation of all three dynasties, because Josephus' sum of reigns for the Hyksos dynasty is actually 253 years and 10 months. This figure must be a century off, as the Turin King List only notes about 150 years.
Sixteenth Dynasty (Thebes)
According to Beckerath, the rulers of Dynasty XVI were vassals of the Hyksos. According to Ryholt, the 16th dynasty, ruling from Thebes, consisted of 15 kings recorded in the Turin King List, although most names are lost. Ryholt reconstruction has been criticized and it is not universally accepted. Virtually nothing is known about these rulers.Proposed dates: 1640–1532 BC, 1650–1580 BC, 1649–1582 BC
Reconstructions for Dynasty XVI
'''Beckerath's Dynasty XVI'''
Abydos Dynasty
The Turin King List records sixteen names after the Dynasty XVI, but the names do not match those of Dynasty XVII and thus likely refer to a different line. This dynasty is hypothesized by Kim Ryholt to have been a short-lived local line contemporaneous with the other dynasties. This has not been accepted by all scholars.The Turin King List ends here, recording a total of 223 kings. According to the reconstructions used here, the original Egyptian annals recorded roughly 243 kings until this point. The whole section after Dynasty XVI is badly damaged, and thus Ryholt's reconstruction can't be proven with certainty. The total for Dynasty I–XVI thus amounts to 227 kings for a period of millennia.
Seventeenth Dynasty (Thebes)
The succession of the last three kings of the Seventeenth Dynasty is attested in the Tomb of Khabekhnet and Table of Qenhirkhopshef, but the placement of the previous ruler is problematic. The Karnak King List includes the throne names of Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep, Sobekemsaf I, and Nubkheperre Intef, but they are not in order. These Theban kings ruled an area from Elephantine to Abydos. They likely began as minor vassals of the Hyksos, as their origins are very obscure. The last kings fought and defeated the Hyksos, and established the New Kingdom of Egypt.Kyholt identified 9 kings of this line, although the exact order is uncertain. Beckerath included 6 additional names belonging to kings that Ryholt placed on the previous dynasties.
Proposed dates: 1645–1550 BC, 1640–1550 BC, 1580–1550 BC
New Kingdom (c. 1550–1075 BC)
The New Kingdom is considered the greatest period in Egyptian history. It began with the expulsion of the Hyksos, and it saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. The Egyptians expanded far into Nubia in the south, and held wide territories in the Near East. Three of the best-known pharaohs originate from this period. These are Akhenaten, whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as the first instance of monotheism, Tutankhamun, known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, and Ramesses II the Great, who attempted to recover the territories in the Levant that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to the Battle of Kadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the Hittite king Muwatalli II. The ensuing Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty is the oldest of its kind.The accession of Ahmose I and the beginning of the New Kingdom can be securely dated to 1550 BC, which is also the date adopted by most scholars. Radiocarbon studies have yielded two intervals for Ahmose's date of accession: 1570–1544 BC and 1564–1528 BC. While most scholars use Shaw's figure of 1550 BC, Hornung argues in favor of an slightly later date, 1540 BC. Many of the reign lengths given by Manetho, as preserved by Josephus, appear to be confirmed by contemporary sources. The years are mostly derived only from the highest known year of each pharaoh, meaning that there is still some uncertainty on their exactitude.
Eighteenth Dynasty
The Eighteenth dynasty lasted roughly 250 years and was the longest-reigning native Egyptian dynasty. It started as a continuation of the Seventeen dynasty, with Ahmose I being the brother of Kamose. However, the death of Amenhotep I without known children ended the male line, bringing the common-born Thutmose I to the throne. Thutmose probably married into the royal family by marrying two presumed daughters of Ahmose I, Ahmose and Mutnofret. If the identification of Mutnofret as a child of Ahmose is correct, that would mean that–via her issue–the family composed of members of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth dynasties ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries, until Tutankhamun's death.Proposed dates: 1550–1307 BC, 1550–1295 BC, 1550–1292 BC, 1539–1292 BC. Regnal years may still be off by one or two years at most.
Comparison of Manethonian royal lists
Reconstructed regnal list of Manetho
Despite being the best-documented period in Egypt's history, almost all of Manetho's names and reign lengths were mixed. His sources were likely already corrupted due to the damnatio memoriae imposed ove the Amarna rulers, and co-regency may have caused additional confusion. The period 1540–1292 BC spans 248 years; the sum of estimates reigns amounts to a minimum of 245 years, which closely matches Josephus' sum of 246 years.
Nineteenth Dynasty (Ramesside)
The Nineteenth Dynasty ruled from approximately 1292 to 1190 BC and includes one of the most famous pharaohs: Ramesses the Great.| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Ramesses I | Menpehtire | Vizier and chosen successor of Horemheb, with whom he briefly shared the throne. Had a rather brief and unremarkable reign. | 1292–1291 BC | |
| 2 | Seti I Merenptah | Menmaatre | Also served as vizier and military commander before succeeding his father. Led several military campaigns and faced the Hittites. His tomb is the largest in the Valley of the Kings. | 1290–1279 BC | |
| 3 | Ramesses II "the Great" Meryamun | Usermaatre Setepenre | Regarded as one of the most powerful pharaohs of Egypt, as well as its longest-reigning and longest-living monarch, possibly only behind Pepi II Neferkare. Also had one of the longest reigns in recorded history. Conducted more military campaigns and built more monuments than any other pharaoh. Also known by the Greek name Ozymandias, after his prenomen Usermaatre. Known to have had about 100 children. He was also one of the few pharaohs to be deified in their lifetime. | 31 May 1279– 13 August 1213 BC | |
| 4 | Merneptah Hotephermaat | Baenre Meryamun | The 13th son of Ramesses II, was already an old man when he took the throne. Faced the first wide attack of the Sea Peoples. | 1213–1203 BC | |
| 5 | Seti II Meryenptah | Userkheperure Setepenre | Faced an internal coup orchestrated by his son or brother Amenmesse at the beginning of his reign, but defeated him and erased him from official records. | 1203–1198 BC | |
| 6 | Amenmesse Heqawaset | Menmire Setepenre | Rival king in opposition to his brother or father Seti II; exact chronology disputed. | 1203–1200 BC | |
| 7 | Merneptah Siptah | Akhenre Setepenre | Son of Seti II, installed by Chancellor Bay under the regency of Tausret. Began his reign as Ramesses Siptah, but quickly changed it, possibly to claim direct descent from Merneptah. | 1198–1192 BC | |
| 8 | Tausret Setepenmut♀ | Sitre Meritamun | Fourth female ruler of Egypt and last native queen regnant. Seti II's widow, initially regent for Siptah, then briefly sole pharaoh after his death. Like Hatshepsut before her, records of her reign were destroyed by later pharaohs. | 1198–1191 BC |
Manethonian royal lists
Here ends the Second Book of Manetho, which records 96 kings, ruling for 2121 years according to Africanus. However, the correct sum of Africanus' dynasties comes to a puzzling 246 kings for 2221 years. The reconstructed chronology for Dynasties XII to XIX shows that about 190 kings ruled for roughly 560 years.
Twentieth Dynasty (Ramesside)
The Twentieth Dynasty ruled from roughly 1190 to 1077 BC. Shaw dated the dynasty to 1186–1069 BC.For the Twentieth Dynasty, Africanus records 12 kings ruling for 135 years. This actually coincides perfectly with the period between Merneptah and Ramesses XI. The sum of reigns is roughly 110 years.
Third Intermediate Period (c. 1075–664 BC)
Following the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Egyptian Empire collapsed and fragmented once more. The rulers of the Twenty-first Dynasty claimed to rule over all of Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt, with the High Priests of Amun ruling over Upper Egypt. The Twenty-second Dynasty maintained control over Egypt for a few decades, but their power soon deteriorated due to infighting. This led to the rise of several competing royal lines in Thebes, Heracleopolis, Hermopolis, Leontopolis, and Tanis, which are collectively known as the Twenty-third Dynasty. Another short-lived line, from Sais, is referred to as the Twenty-fourth Dynasty.The fragmentation of Egypt came to an end with the arrival of the Nubian kings of Kush, who conquered Egypt 745 BC. This was the first time all of Egypt was ruled by foreigners, although the Nubians were highly Egyptianized and considered themselves legitimate pharaohs, even reviving the tradition of pyramid building.
While not as chaotic as the previous two intermediate periods, the lack of official king lists makes it difficult to reconstruct the exact succession of rulers. The only surviving king list is that of Manetho, which is likely based on a biased source dated to the Kushite period. Note that the sum of items does not match the stated total of years.
Manetho's Dynasties XXI to XXV
| Dynasty XXI | Dynasty XXII | Dynasty XXIII | Dynasty XXIV & XXV |
| 7 kings of Tanis, 130 yearsSmendes, 26 years.Psousennes,.Nephelkheres, 4 years.Amenophthis, 9 years.Osokhor, 6 years.Psinakhes, 9 yearsPsousennes,. | 9 kings of Bubastus, 120 yearsSesônchis, 21 years.Osorthôn, 15 years.
| 4 kings of Tanis, Petoubatēs, Osorkhō, Psammous, 10 years.Zēt, 31 years. | 1 king of SaisBokhkhoris, 6 years.----3 kings of Ethiopia, Sabakon, Sebikhos, Tarkos, |
Twenty-first Dynasty (Tanis)
Most scholars date the 21st dynasty to 1070–945 BC; Ian Shaw dates it to 1069–945 BC. The native Egyptian names are given in small italics.| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Smendes I Nesbanebdjed Meryamun | Hedjkheperre Setepenre | Took the throne after the death of Ramesses XI and married his daughter. Ruled alongside Pinedjem I, the High Priest of Amun and effective pharaoh at Thebes, from his 16th year onwards. | 1076–1052 BC | |
| 2 | Amenemnisu | Neferkare Heqawast | Co-ruler of Smendes; possibly a son of Herihor, exact chronology uncertain. | uncertain | |
| 3 | Psusennes I Pasebakhaenniut Meryamun | Aakheperre Setepenamun | Son of the High Priest Pinedjem I. His tomb at Tanis is the only fully intact ancient Egyptian royal tomb ever found. | 1051–1002 BC | |
| 4 | Amenemope | Usermaatre Setepenamun | Son of Psusennes I and co-ruler for a couple of years. Buried inside the intact tomb of Psusennes I. | 1002–993 BC | |
| 5 | Osorkon "the Elder" Meryamun | Aakheperre Setepenre | Scholars initially doubted his existence, hence the lack of a regnal number. Left no surviving monuments. His accession almost certainly took place in the year 992 BC, based on an astronomical calculation. | 992–987 BC | |
| 6 | Siamun | Netjerikheperre Setpenamun | Son of Psusennes I. | 986–968 BC | |
| 7 | Psusennes II Hor Pasebakhaenniut Meryamun | Titkheperre Setepenre | Son of the High Priest Pinedjem II. His daughter married the future pharaoh Shoshenq I. | 967–944 BC |
High Priests of Amun
The High Priests of Amun at Thebes were the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt during the Twenty-first dynasty, writing their names in cartouches, being buried in royal tombs, and passing their office to their sons. They likely did not consider themselves actual pharaohs, but their use of royal titles implied an equivalent level of authority. Dates are taken from Payraudeau, which may not perfectly align with Hornung's. There is insufficient evidence to reconstruct a reliable chronology of these rulers.| Image | Priest | Notes | Reign | |
| Piankh | Previously believed to be a son-in-law of Herihor, but the evidence for this has been refuted, and scholars now believe that Piankh actually ruled before Herihor. According to another theory, Piankh may have served as High Priest during Herihor's reign, but this is also uncertain. | uncertain | ||
| Herihor Siamun | Officer under Ramesses XI, adopted royal titulary at Thebes, possibly after the death of Ramesses XI, thus becoming ruler in the South alongside the Tanite pharaoh in the North. | 1070–1063 BC 1063–1054 BC | ||
| Pinedjem I Meryamun | Son of Piankh, and father of Pharaoh Psusennes I. Assumed full pharaonic titulature. | 1063–1054 BC 1054–1032 BC | ||
| Masaharta | Son of Pinedjem I. | 1054–1046 BC | ||
| – | Djedkhonsuefankh | Son of Pinedjem I. | 1046–1045 BC | |
| Menkheperre | Son of Pinedjem I and brother of Djedkhonsuefankh, whom he succeeded. Adopted pharaonic titles. | 1045–990 BC | ||
| Smendes II Nesbanebdjed | Son of Menkheperre, succeeded him as an old man. | 990–988 BC | ||
| Pinedjem II | Likely a son of Menkheperre. | 988–966 BC | ||
| – | Psusennes III Pasebakhaenniut | Son of Pinedjem II, Likely the same person as Pharaoh Psusennes II. | 966–943 BC |
Twenty-second Dynasty (Libyan)
The succession of kings of this dynasty is highly disputed; the following reconstruction follows Hornung. Other scholars date the dynasty 945–715 BC, after Shaw. Despite the political turmoil of this period, this dynasty managed to last for roughly 200 years, being exceeded only by the Thutmoside and Ptolemaic dynasties.| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Shoshenq I Meryamun | Hedjkheperre Setpenre | Son of a Libyan chief and nephew of Osorkon the Elder, married a daughter of Psusennes II. Appointed his children as High Priests of Amun and other relevant offices. Ruled from Bubastis and then Tanis; almost certainly the "Pharaoh Shishak" of the Hebrew Bible. His campaign against in Israel and Judah can be securely dated to the year 926 or 925 BC. | 943–923 BC | |
| 2 | Osorkon I Meryamun | Sekhemkheperre Setepenre | Son of Shoshenq I and grandson of Psusennes II, continued with his father's military campaigns in the Levant. | 922–888 BC | |
| 3 | Shoshenq IIa Meryamun | Heqakheperre | Son of Osorkon I, initially High Priest of Amun. Died suddenly from an infected head wound. Buried in the intact tomb of Psusennes I. | uncertain | |
| 4 | – | Shoshenq IIb Meryamun | Tutkheperre Setepenre | Existence confirmed only recently; placed as fourth king by Hornung. | uncertain |
| 5 | Shoshenq IIc Meryamun | Maatkheperre Setepenre | Existence confirmed only recently; likely co-ruler in Upper Egypt, or a short-lived rival pharaoh. Exact placement uncertain. | uncertain | |
| 6 | Takelot I Meryamun | Hedjkheperre Setepenre | Son of Osorkon I, put down a revolt in Thebes. | uncertain | |
| 7 | Osorkon II Meryamun | Usermaatre Setpenamun | Son of Takelot I; his cousin and High Priest Harsiese usurped power at Thebes. Believed by some scholars to have been succeeded by Takelot II instead of Shoshenq III. | 872–842 BC | |
| 8 | Shoshenq III Sibaste Meryamun Netjerheqaon | Usermaatre Setpenre | Possibly a son of Osorkon II. Faced the usurpation of Harsiese and then Pedubast I. Egypt was fragmented during his reign. | 841–803 BC | |
| 9 | Shoshenq IV Meryamun Sabast Netjerheqaiunu | Hedjkheperre Setepenre | Sometimes seen as the successor of Pedubast I in Leontopolis and part of Dynasty XXIII. Called "Shoshenq IIIb" by Beckerath and Hornung. | 802–790 BC | |
| 10 | Pami Meryamun | Usermaatre Setpenre | Sometimes placed in Dynasty XXIII. | 789–784 BC | |
| 11 | Shoshenq V | Aakheperre | Possibly brother of Pami and son of Shoshenq III. Sometimes placed in Dynasty XXIII alongside his son Osorkon IV. | 783–746 BC |
The exact succession of rulers during the period of Dynasties 22 and 23 is highly disputed:
Comparison of modern regnal lists
| Kitchen 1972 | Beckerath 1999 | Shaw 2000 | London 2000 | Mladjov 2021 |
Dynasty 22
| Dynasty 22
Shoshenq, Harsiese, Shepenupet | Dynasty 22
| Dynasty 22
| Dynasty 22
Lentopolis
Hermopolis |
| Bunson 2002 | Hornung 2006 | Krauss 2007 | Lloyd 2010 | Dynasty 22
Lentopolis
Hermopolis |
Dynasty 22
| Dynasty 22 Lower Egypt
| Dynasty 22 | Dynasty 22 | Dynasty 22
Lentopolis
Hermopolis |
Twenty-third Dynasty (Libyan)
The designation "Twenty-Third Dynasty" is applied variously by scholars to branches of the Twenty-Second Dynasty ruling in mostly Upper Egypt, to various local rulers based at Heracleopolis Magna, Hermopolis, Leontopolis, and to a line of kings who succeeded the Twenty-Second Dynasty at Tanis, all of Libyan origin. The following is the most recent reconstruction by Frédéric Payraudeau. There are roughly 20 kings attested around this period, but this may vary significantly depending on the author. See also the discussion of David Aston and Karl Jansen-Winkeln.Rulers of Thebes
Rulers of Heracleopolis
| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Peftjauawybast | Neferkare | Married a niece of Takelot III. Was defeated by Piye, as depicted in the Stele of Piye, but was allowed to rule as the local governor of Heracleopolis. | 750–720 BC |
Rulers of 'Hermopolis
| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Djehutyemhat | Neferkheperre Khaikhau | Order uncertain. Originally a vassal of Dynasty XXII in Hermopolis, he proclaimed himself king with the support of the Theban elite. | 745–735 BC | |
| 2 | Nimlot | – | Joined the coalition of Tefnakht of Sais. Submitted to Piye, as depicted in the Stele of Piye, and was allowed to rule as the local governor of Hermopolis. | 735–720 BC |
Rulers of Leontopolis
| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Iuput II Meryamun Saiset | Usermaatre Setepenre | Submitted to Piye, as depicted in the Stele of Piye, and was allowed to rule as the local governor of Leontopolis. | 730–710 BC |
Rulers of Tanis'
This is the line recognized by Manetho as the legitimate successors of the 22nd dynasty.
Twenty-fourth Dynasty (1st Saite)
This was a short-lived rival dynasty located in the western Delta, at Sais.Proposed dates: 740–712 BC ; 736–723 BC, 731–712 BC, 727–715 BC.
| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Tefnakht I | Shepsesre | Chief of the Ma, a Libyan tribe. Led a coalition of Egyptian kings to repel the invasion of the Nubians. | 736–729 BC | |
| 2 | Bakenranef | Wahkare | Manetho calls him Bocchoris and assigns him 6 years, while also recording him as the sole member of the dynasty. Likely a brother of Tefnakht, he was defeated in battle by Piye. He was initially allowed to stay in Sais and rule as a local governor, but Piye's successor, Shebitku, hunted him down and burned him alive. | 728–723 BC |
Twenty-fifth Dynasty (Nubian)
Following the collapse of the New Kingdom, the Nubians, a people located around Southern Egypt, founded the Kingdom of Kush. One of its rulers, Piye, invaded Lower Egypt and took the title of pharaoh, although the Nubians already controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt in the early years of his reign. Kashta, Piye's father, is sometimes also listed as part of the dynasty. The capital during this dynasty was Memphis.Manetho claims that the 25th Dynasty ruled for 40 years, but this is about half of its actual duration. This dynasty is also mentioned by Herodotus, who records "eighteen Ethiopian kings", and by Diodorus Siculus, who writes that "four Ethiopians held the throne, not consecutively but with intervals between, for a little less than thirty-six years in all.":100:44 The accession of Taharqa can be securely dated to 690 BC, marking the first certain year in Egyptian history. Dates for the early kings follow Payraudeau.
Proposed dates: 753–655 BC, 747–656 BC, 746–655 BC ; 744–656 BC,
| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Piye | Usermaatre | Also called Piankhi; likely Manetho's Set recorded at the end of Dynasty XXIII. Son of the Kushite king Kashta; conquered Egypt after defeating the combined forces of all four Egyptian kings. Presented himself not as a conqueror, but as a restorer. His dynasty saw a renaissance of Egyptian arts, and its rulers revived the old tradition of pyramid building. | 744–714 BC | |
| 2 | Shebitku | Djedkaure | Believed to be Shabaka's successor until the 2010s. Likely Herodotus' Sethos. Fought the Assyrian king Sennacherib with the aid of the Palestinians and Phoenicians. | 714–705 BC | |
| 3 | Shabaka | Neferkare | Believed to be Shabaka's predecessor until the 2010s. Commissioned the Shabaka Stone. | 705–690 BC | |
| 4 | Taharqa | Nefertemkhure | Son of Piye; fought and eventually lost to the Assyrian king Esarhaddon, who took and sacked Memphis. Taharqa fled to the south and failed to regain Memphis from Ashurbanipal, Esarhaddon's successor. Retired to Nubia shortly before his own death. | 690–'664 BC | |
| 5 | Tantamani | Bakare | Nephew and co-ruler of Taharqa. Recovered Thebes, Aswan, and Memphis, but was defeated again by the Assyrians. Thebes was looted, and he retired to Nubia. Not recorded by Manetho. | 664–656 BC' |
Proto-Saite Dynasty
While modern scholars recognize Psamtik I as the founder of the 26th Dynasty, Manetho records four kings before him. They likely correspond to local rulers and Nubian/Assyrian vassals.| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| – | Ammeris "the Nubian" | – | Included by Eusebius but not by Africanus. | 12 years | |
| Tefnakht II | Menibre? Iribre? | Perhaps relatives of Bakenranef and Tefnakht, possibly attested in scarab seals. | 7 years | ||
| – | Nekauba | – | Perhaps relatives of Bakenranef and Tefnakht, possibly attested in scarab seals. | 16 years | |
| Necho I Nechaos | Menkheperre | Was killed by an invading Kushite force under Tantamani. Father of Psamtik I. | 8 years |
Uncertain position
| Image | Personal name | Notes |
| Merytawy Penamun | Identity and chronology highly disputed; possibly a local ruler or pretender. Beckerath dates him to the 25th dynasty, but Kitchen dates him to an unspecified period after the 26th dynasty. |
Late period (664–332 BC)
The Twenty-fifth Dynasty ended after the Assyrian conquest of Egypt. In 671 BC, Memphis, the capital of the first dynasties, was plundered by Esarhaddon. Despite this, a new dynasty, the Twenty-sixth, managed to restore Egypt's influence in the region and repelled the Assyrians and Babylonians. Still, they all eventually fell to the Achaemenid Persians, who became the Twenty-seventh Dynasty in 525 BC. Persian rule was interrupted by three short-lived dynasties ruling for six decades, between 404 and 342 BC. The first one was founded by Amyrtaeus, and the last one ended with Nectanebo II, the last native ruler of Egypt until the 20th century.The chronology starting from Taharqa, the penultimate Nubian king, can be fixed thanks to the Canon of Kings of Ptolemy, which is itself based on ancient Babylonian sources and fits perfectly with Manetho's reign lengths. The only period with disputed chronology is the restored native Egyptian rule between the 27th and 31st Dynasties; all other dates are fixed.
Twenty-sixth Dynasty (Saite)
The 26th Dynasty was the last great native Egyptian dynasty and ruled from 664 to 525 BC. Many of these pharaohs are better known by their Hellenized names; native Egyptian names are given in small italics.Twenty-seventh Dynasty (Achaemenid)
The first Persian domination lasted from 525 to 404 BC.| Image | Persian name | Egyptian name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Cambyses ?????? Kaᵐbūjiya | Kembud kmbḏ | Son of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Reigned from December 530 BC and conquered Egypt after defeating Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium. Described as a tyrant in both Egyptian and Greek sources. Died in uncertain circumstances while traveling to crush a rebellion in Syria. | August 525–July 522 BC | |
| 2 | Bardiya ????? | Also called "Gaumata the Magi", claimed by Darius I to be an usurper who impersonated the son of Cyrus the Great. Revolted on 11 March 522 BC and briefly took the throne from Cambyses. Not included in most modern king lists. | July–29 September 522 BC | ||
| 3 | Darius I "the Great" ??????? Dārayavaʰuš | Deriush driwš | Alleged son of Cambyses, took the throne after killing his rivals. Died in October 486, at the age of 64, while traveling to put down an Egyptian revolt. | 29 September 522– October 486 BC | |
| 4 | Xerxes I "the Great" ??????? Xšayār̥šā | Kheshyresh ḫšrꞽš | Son of Darius I, never visited Egypt personally. Put down rebellions in both Egypt and Persia. Was murdered by his son, Prince Darius. | October 486– August 465 BC | |
| * | – | Artabanus | Recorded by ancient chronographers as an ephemeral king who ruled for 7 months, but was actually only the power behind the throne. Not included in any of the modern king lists. | 465 BC | |
| 5 | Artaxerxes I ??????? Artaxšaçāʰ | Artekhshesesh Ꜥrtḫšsš | Son of Xerxes, killed Artabanus in hand-to-hand combat. Faced massive rebellions in Egypt. | August 465– December 424 BC | |
| 6 | Xerxes II ??????? | Kheshyresh ḫšrꞽš | Ruled 2 months according to Manetho, more precisely, 45 days around December 425 BC. The second-shortest-reigning pharaohs, only behind the 18 days of Ptolemy XI Alexander II. | December 424– January 423 BC | |
| 7 | Sogdianus | Ruled 7 months according to Manetho, but in reality only one month at most. | January–February 423 BC | ||
| 8 | Darius II ??????? | Deriush driwš | Son of Artaxerxes I, usurped the throne from the rightful heir and fought against the Persian aristocracy to maintain control. The Egyptians successfully revolted after his death. | February 423– March 404 BC |
Rebels against Persian rule
| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign |
| Pedubast IV | Seheruibre | Also called Petubastis III. A native Egyptian rebel in the Delta. | 522–520 BC | |
| – | Psammetichus IV | Ahmose Nebkaenre | A proposed native Egyptian rebel leader. Exact dates unknown. | 480s BC |
| Inaros II | – | Possibly a prince of Heliopolis and son of Psamtik III. Rebelled against Artaxerxes I and took control over modern Alexandria. Was defeated by Megabyzus and crucified in Persia. | 454 BC |
Twenty-eighth Dynasty
The Twenty-eighth Dynast| Image | Personal name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Amyrtaeus | Proclaimed himself pharaoh on the death of Darius II and established himself in Sais. Was defeated and executed by Nepherites. | 404–399 BC |
Twenty-ninth Dynasty
The Twenty-ninth Dynasty ruled from 399/8 to 380 BC:Thirtieth Dynasty
The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native Egyptian dynasty and lasted from 380 to 342 BC.| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Nectanebo I Nakhtnebef | Kheperkare | Seized power in Sebennytos. Managed to stop a Persian invasion of the Nile. | 380–362 BC | |
| 2 | Teos Djedhor Setep-en-Anhur | Irimaatenre | Son and brief co-ruler of Nectanebo I; was forced to abdicate as part of a general uproar against his heavy tax policies. | 362–360 BC | |
| 3 | Nectanebo II Nakhthorhebyt Merihathor | Snedjemibre Setepenanhur | Last native ruler of Egypt until the Egyptian revolution of 1952; usurped the throne from his uncle. Managed to repel the Persians for a time, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Pelusium, escaping to Nubia before disappearing. Later stories portrayed him as the secret father of Alexander the Great. | 360–342 BC |
Thirty-First Dynasty (2nd Achaemenid)
The second Persian domination lasted from 342 to 332 BC.| Image | Persian name | Egyptian name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Artaxerxes III ??????? Artaxšaçāʰ | Artekhshesesh Ꜥrtḫšsš | Son of Artaxerxes II and grandson of Darius II, invaded Egypt in 351 BC. Described as a cruel tyrant by ancient sources; he was poisoned with his sons by a court official. | 342–338 BC | |
| 2 | Artaxerxes IV ??????? Artaxšaçāʰ | Artekhshesesh Ꜥrtḫšsš | Youngest son of Artaxerxes III, survived the conspiracy of Bagoas. Tried to poison the eunuch, but was murdered with his family. | 338–336 BC | |
| 3 | Darius III ??????? Dārayavaʰuš | Deriush driwš | Cousin of Arses, took the throne after forcing Bagoas to drink his own poison. Faced the invading forces of Alexander III of Macedon and was defeated at the Battles of Issus and then Gaugamela. Was ultimately murdered by his own men. | 336–332 BC |
Rebels against Persian rule
| Image | Personal name | Throne name | Notes | Reign |
| Khabash | Senensetepuniptah | Led a revolt against the Persians around 338 BC; later remembered as a national hero. | 338 BC |
Hellenistic period (332–30 BC)
The Macedonians (Greeks) under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt in 332 BC, creating one of the largest empires in history. However, this empire quickly fragmented after his sudden death in 323 BC, which led to the chaotic Wars of the Diadochi. Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, claimed the pharaonic titles and established the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the last and longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt. The former Persian territories were absorbed into the Hellenic Seleucid Empire, which bordered Egypt to the East. Both states would eventually fall to the Roman Republic over the course of the 1st century BC.Thirty-Second Dynasty (Argead)
The Argeads ruled Egypt from 332 to 305 BC. Like their predecessors, the Hellenistic rulers used the Sa-Ra title to display their Egyptized personal names.Thirty-Third Dynasty (Ptolemaic)
The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemaic, ruled Egypt for nearly 275 years, from 305/4 BC to 30 BC. It was the longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt, followed closely by the Eighteenth. The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, better known simply as Cleopatra, who was successively the lover of Julius Caesar and, after his death, of Mark Antony, having children with both of them. She strove to create a dynastic and political union with Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Antony doomed their plans. Egypt was ultimately conquered by the Romans under Octavian, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus.All members of the Ptolemaic dynasty shared the same names, but adopted one or several Greek epithets on accession. Regnal numbers are only a modern convention.
| Image | Greek name | Egyptian name | Notes | Reign | |
| 1 | Ptolemy I Soter Πτολεμαῖος Σωτήρ | Ptolemis ptwlmjs | Friend and companion of Alexander, ruled as satrap after his death and proclaimed himself king in the midst of the Wars of the Diadochi. Stole Alexander's body and buried him in Alexandria, claiming to follow his last will. Commissioned the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders, and the Library of Alexandria. Died aged around 85. | 304–282 BC | |
| 2 | Ptolemy II Philadelphus Πτολεμαῖος Φιλάδελφος | Ptolemis ptwlmjs | Son of Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice I, named co-ruler in 284. Initially married to Arsinoe I, named Philadelphus after marrying his own sister, Arsinoe II. Completed his father's projects in Alexandria. Died at the age of 62. | 28 February 284– 28 January 246 BC | |
| 3 | – | Ptolemy Epigonos Πτολεμαίος ὁ Έπίγονος | – | Co-ruler of Ptolemy II Philadelphus; demoted after revolting with Timarchus of Miletus. Possibly a son of Arsinoe II, was allowed to rule Telmessos and died aged 60. | 267–259 BC |
| 4 | Ptolemy III Euergetes Πτολεμαῖος Εὐεργέτης | Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ | Son of Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Arsinoe I; expanded Ptolemaic power and campaigned as far as Babylon, at the hearth of the Seleucid Empire. | 28 January 246– December 222 BC | |
| 5 | Ptolemy IV Philopator Πτολεμαῖος Φιλοπάτωρ | Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ | Son of Ptolemy III Euergetes and Berenice II. Effective power was held by Sosibius and Agathocles, who manipulated him into poisoning his own mother and brother. Faced the massive revolt of Horwennefer in 205 BC. Died at the age of 44 after a life of excesses. | December 222–July 204 BC | |
| 6 | Ptolemy V Epiphanes Eucharistus Πτολεμαῖος Ἐπιφανής Εὐχάριστος | Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ | Son of Ptolemy IV Philopator and Arsinoe III, born and named co-ruler in 210 BC. Succeeded in August 204 and ruled under successive regencies until November 197 BC. | November 210– September 180 BC | |
| 7 | Ptolemy VI Philometor Πτολεμαῖος Φιλομήτωρ | Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ | Son of Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Cleopatra I Syra. Succeeded at age 6 and ruled under the regency of her mother until October 177 BC, but was only declared of age in about January 169 BC. Was briefly deposed by Ptolemy VIII Physcon in late 164 BC, but was quickly restored with Roman aid. Died after falling from his horse. | September 180– November 164 BC ----163– July 145 BC | |
| * | Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Πτολεμαίος Νέος Φιλοπάτωρ | – | Also known as Ptolemy Memphites. Formerly thought to have been a short-lived co-ruler, possibly a son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra II. Posthumously added to the cult of the deified royals. | never reigned | |
| 8 | Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Tryphon Πτολεμαῖος Εὐεργέτης Τρύφων | Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ | Brother of Ptolemy VI Philometor, declared co-ruler in 170 BC alongside Cleopatra II. Nicknamed "the Fat" ; his reign was plagued by court intrigue. Expelled his co-rulers November 164, but was himself deposed a few months later. Restored in 145–130 and again in 127–116. Died on 28 June 116 BC, aged nearly 70. | 5 October 170–163 BC ----145–130 BC ----127–116 BC | |
| 9 | – | Ptolemy Eupator Πτολεμαίος Ευπάτωρ | – | Child of Ptolemy VI Philometor, died shortly after being named co-ruler. | March–July 152 BC |
| 10 | Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira♀ Κλεοπάτρα Φιλομήτωρ Σώτειρα | Qleopadrat qlwpdrt | Sister-wife of Ptolemy VI Philometor, then wife of Ptolemy VIII Physcon, who briefly deposed her in late 164 BC. They reconciled in 145 BC, on the death of Ptolemy VI Philometor, but in 131 BC she deposed him and became sole ruler. She was deposed in 127 BC, but returned in early 124 BC. Then co-ruled alongside Cleopatra III, Ptolemy VIII Physcon, and briefly Ptolemy IX Soter until 116 BC. Had one of the longest reigns. | 5 October 170–164 BC ----163–127 BC ----124–116 BC | |
| 11 | Cleopatra III Euergetis♀ Κλεοπάτρα Εὐεργέτις | Qleopadrat qlwpdrt | Daughter of Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II, married her uncle-stepfather Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Declared co-ruler in 142/140 BC. Was exiled in 130 BC, but returned in 127 BC and became regent for her son Ptolemy IX Soter in 116 BC. In 107 BC, she deposed him in favour of another son, Ptolemy X Alexander I. Was killed during the ensuing civil war by Ptolemy X Alexander I. | 140–130 BC ----127– September 101 BC | |
| 12 | Ptolemy IX Soter II Πτολεμαῖος Σωτήρ | Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ | Son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III; nicknamed "chickpea". Was exiled in 107 BC, but retook the throne on the death of Ptolemy X Alexander I. | 28 June 116– October 107 BC ---- November 88– December 81 BC | |
| 13 | Ptolemy X Alexander I Πτολεμαῖος Ἀλέξανδρος | Ptolemis Aleksentres ptlwmis ḏd n.f Ꜥlksntrs | Son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III, whom he married. Became senior ruler in 101 BC, after the death of Cleopatra III, alongside Berenice III. Was expelled from Alexandria by Ptolemy IX Soter, dying at sea while attempting to escape to Cyprus. | September 107– May 88 BC | |
| 14 | Berenice III♀ Βερενίκη | Irypatet Werethesut Birniket jry-pꜤtt wr-ḥsw bjrnjkt | Daughter of Ptolemy IX Soter. Named co-ruler with her uncle-husband Ptolemy X Alexander I. Was expelled in 88 BC, but was allowed to return in 81 BC as co-ruler of her father. Briefly ruled as sole monarch for 4 months in 80 BC before being killed by Ptolemy XI Alexander II. | ---- July 81– April 80 BC | |
| 15 | Ptolemy XI Alexander II Πτολεμαῖος Ἀλέξανδρος | Ptolemis Aleksentres ptlwmis ḏd n.f Ꜥlksntrs | The shortest-reigning pharaoh. Son of Ptolemy X Alexander I and Berenice III, installed as king with the support of the Roman dictator Sulla. Was killed on his 19th day by the Alexandrian mob after murdering his mother. | April 80 BC | |
| 16 | Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus Πτολεμαῖος Νέος Διόνυσος | Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptahset ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ-Ꜣst | Son of Ptolemy IX Soter and a concubine ; nicknamed "the Flautist". Deposed by Cleopatra VI after an unpopular reign; later restored with the help of the Roman general Pompey. Left his official will in Rome. | April 80– June 58 BC ----February 55– March 51 BC | |
| 17 | Cleopatra V Tryphaena♀ Κλεοπάτρα Τρύφαινα | Qleopadrat qlwpdrt | Daughter of Ptolemy IX Soter or Ptolemy X Alexander I, wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes, and mother of Berenice IV. Theorised to be the same person as Cleopatra VI; co-ruled with Ptolemy XII Auletes until her death or removal in 69 BC | April 80– October 69 BC | |
| 18 | – | Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Κλεοπάτρα Τρύφαινα | Qleopadrat qlwpdrt | Alleged daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes; briefly co-ruled with Berenice IV. Likely identical with Cleopatra V. | June 58–August 57 BC |
| 19 | – | Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Βερενίκη | Bereniket brnjkt | Daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes and Cleopatra V. Proclaimed co-ruler in 58 BC; deposed and executed on the return of her father. | June 58– February 55 BC |
| 20 | Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator♀ Κλεοπάτρα Θεά Φιλοπάτωρ | Qleopadrat Netjeret Meritesrt nṯrt mr jts | De facto last pharaoh. Daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes, succeeded aged 18 and ruled as senior pharaoh with her brothers and eldest son. In 48 BC she fought and defeated her sister Arsinoe IV with the support of Roman dictator Julius Caesar, who fathered her first-born son and heir. After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she allied with and married Mark Antony during the wars of the Second Triumvirate. Their actions led Octavian, Caesar's heir, to declare war in 32 BC; both were defeated and later committed suicide. | March 51– 12 August 30 BC | |
| 21 | Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Πτολεμαῖος Θεός Φιλοπάτωρ | Ptolemis ptwlmys | Brother-husband of Cleopatra; joined Arsinoe IV in her war against Cleopatra and Caesar. Died in a failed attempt to ambush Caesar, aged 14–15. | March 51–13 January 47 BC | |
| 22 | – | Arsinoe IV♀ Ἀρσινόη | Arsinat rsjnꜣt | Sister of Cleopatra; rebelled with the help of Ganymedes and then took Alexandria for a few months. Was betrayed, sent to Rome, and later executed by Mark Antony. | September 48– 13 January 47 BC |
| 23 | – | Ptolemy XIV Philopator Πτολεμαῖος Φιλοπάτωρ | Ptolemis ptwlmys | Brother-husband and nominal co-ruler with Cleopatra. Died at the age of 15–16, allegedly poisoned by his sister-wife. | January 47– August 44 BC |
| 24 | Ptolemy XV Caesar Πτολεμαῖος Καῖσαρ | Ptolemis Kyseres ptwlmys kysrs | Son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, crowned co-ruler at the age of 3, better known as Caesarion. Nominally the last pharaoh; was executed by Octavian after the fall of Alexandria. | 2 September 44–August 30 BC |
Native rebellions
The following rebellions took place in Upper Egypt and were centered in Thebes.
| Rebel | Notes | Reign |
| Horwennefer | Rebel pharaoh in the South against Ptolemy IV Philopator. | November 205– September 199 BC |
| Ankhwennefer | Successor of Howennefer. Took advantage of the invasion of Antiochus III the Great in Egypt's Eastern provinces. Captured and later executed by Ptolemy V Epiphanes. | September 199–27 August 186 BC |
| Harsiesi Sausir | Rebel pharaoh in the South against Ptolemy VIII Physcon; took Thebes for a couple of months but was expelled and defeated in the following year. | September 131– September 130 BC |
Possible female rulers
The following queens, otherwise referred to just as consorts, are considered pharaohs by Sally-Ann Ashton:
| Image | Greek name | Egyptian name | Notes | Reign |
| Arsinoe II Philadelphos | Arsinat rsjnꜣt | Wife of Ptolemy II Philadelphus; possibly given posthumous royal titles. | 273/2–July 270/68 BC | |
| Berenice II Euergetis | Bereniket brnjkt | Wife of Ptolemy III Euergetes; served for 5 years as regent of Ptolemy IV Philopator, who poisoned her. | 246–221 BC | |
| Arsinoe III Thea Philopator | Arsinat rsjnꜣt | Sister-wife of Ptolemy IV Philopator, murdered at the instigation of Sosibius. | 220–204 BC | |
| Cleopatra I Thea Epiphanes Syra | Qleopadrat qlwpdrt | Wife of Ptolemy V Epiphanes, regent of her son Ptolemy VI Philometor during his minority. Possible nominal co-ruler with her husband and son. Exact status disputed. | 193–177 BC |
Rome
Egypt became a client kingdom of Rome in the reign of Ptolemy X Alexander I but it was not until the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC, that Egypt became a Roman province. The Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh by the Egyptians, but the title was not acknowledged outside the province. The last Roman emperor known from a pharaonic titulary is Maximinus Daza. Royal cartouches are attested as late as 340 AD, but the pagan Egyptians chose to posthumously use cartouches of Diocletian rather than acknowledging the later Christian emperors. This was around the same time that the knowledge and understanding of hieroglyphs began to be forgotten; the last known inscription of its kind, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, dates to the year 394.Roman rule in Egypt continued almost uninterrupted until the 7th century, when Rome's provinces in Africa fell to the Arab conquests, whereafter Egypt was ruled by the successive caliphates.