Training and development
Training and development involves improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them. Training may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology, but have within the last two decades become closely associated with human resources management, talent management, human resources development, instructional design, human factors, and knowledge management.
Skills training has taken on varying organizational forms across industrialized economies. Germany has an elaborate vocational training system, whereas the United States and the United Kingdom are considered to generally have weak ones.
History
Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the world. Early training-related articles appeared in journals marketed to enslavers in the Antebellum South and training approaches and philosophies were discussed extensively by Booker T. Washington. Early academic publishing related to training included a 1918 article in the Journal of Applied Psychology, which explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since it was historically rooted in trial-and-error intervention research, and new training methods were developed, such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing. The scope of training and development also expanded to include cross-cultural training, a focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new organization development literature to frame training programs.
The 1980s focused on how employees received and implemented training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for evaluation purposes, particularly management training programs. The development piece of training and development became increasingly popular in the 90s, with employees more frequently being influenced by the concept of lifelong learning. It was in this decade that research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive culture was first conducted.
The 21st century brought more research in topics such as team-training, such as cross-training, which emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities.
Training practice and methods
Training and development encompass three main activities: training, education, and development. Differing levels and types of development may be used depending on the roles of employees in an organisation.The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers, and line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The clients of training and development are business planners, while the participants are those who undergo the processes. The facilitators are human resource management staff and the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the others'.
Since the 2000s, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities. These active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning, error management training, guided exploration, and mastery training. Typical projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new employee orientation, professional skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in high-reliability organizations, which rely on high safety standards to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment, or the environment.
The instructional systems design approach is often used for designing learning programs and used for instructional design, or the process of designing, developing, and delivering learning content. There are 5 phases in the ADDIE model:
- Needs assessment: problem identification. training needs analysis, determination of audience determined, identification of stakeholder's needs and required resources
- Program design: mapping of learning intervention/implementation outline and evaluation methods
- Program development: delivery method, production of learning outcomes, quality evaluation of learning outcome, development of communication strategy, required technology, and assessment and evaluation tools
- Training delivery and implementation: participation in side-programs, training delivery, learning participation, and evaluation of business
- Evaluation of training: formal evaluation, including the evaluation of learning and potential points of improvement
- Apprenticeship training: training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience both on and off the job in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work
- Co-operative programs and internship programs: training programs that combine practical, on-the-job experience with formal education, and are usually offered at colleges and universities
- Classroom instruction: information is presented in lectures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes or through computer instruction
- Self-directed learning: individuals work at their own pace during programmed instruction, which may include books, manuals, or computers that break down subject-matter content into highly organized logical sequences that demand a continuous response on the trainee's part. It often includes the use of a computer and online resources.
- Audiovisual: methods used to teach the skills and procedures required for a number of jobs through audiovisual means
- Simulation: used when it is not practical or safe to train people on the actual equipment or within the actual work environment
In the 1940s, Professor Reginald Revans introduced action learning development model, whereby training managers bring together organizational teams to improve organizational performance. According to Revans, the learning formula is: Learning = Traditional Training Program + Questioning to create development insights. In addition to traditional training methods, organizational questioning enables each employee to reflect on past experiences, the write down new insights to guide future actions to improve on the job performance and collective organizational performance. Action-learning based training models have become popular among many training managers and chief learning officers.
Training effectiveness can be enhanced by using digital tools and platforms that streamline task management, monitor progress, and provide feedback to both employees and managers. Modern software solutions help organizations align training programs with performance objectives, track learning outcomes, and identify areas for improvement.
Training in the Public Sector
Training and development in the public sector are essential for cultivating a competent, motivated, and ethically grounded workforce. These initiatives support skill acquisition, reinforce public service values, and enhance employee engagement. Research has examined how developmental interventions influence Public Service Motivation, facilitate training transfer, and improve work engagement across various public organizations.Public Service Motivation (PSM) and Training
PSM refers to prosocial and altruistic values that drive individuals to serve the public interest. It is a key predictor of job satisfaction, performance, and ethical behavior among public employees. In competitive civil service systems, recruitment may attract candidates motivated by extrinsic rewards, potentially crowding out intrinsic public service values, a phenomenon known as adverse selection.A study by Chen, Hsieh, and Chen evaluated a five-week onboarding program for new civil servants in Taiwan. The training led to statistically significant improvements in public service-related knowledge and attitudes, including a stronger perception of public service as a means to help others and contribute positively to society. However, PSM itself showed minimal short-term change, suggesting that deeply held values are less responsive to brief interventions. The study found that perceived usefulness of training was strongly associated with attitude change and, in some cases, modest increases in PSM. A positive attitude toward public service work mediated the relationship between training usefulness and PSM, indicating that training can indirectly influence motivation by shaping how employees perceive their roles.