Instructional design


Instructional design, also known as instructional systems design and originally known as instructional systems development, is the practice of systematically designing, developing and delivering instructional materials and experiences, both digital and physical, in a consistent and reliable fashion toward an efficient, effective, appealing, engaging and inspiring acquisition of knowledge. The process consists broadly of determining the state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed.
Learning theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning, and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.There are numerous instructional design models, but many are based on the ADDIE model with its five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

History

Origins

As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology, though recently constructivism has influenced thinking in the field. This development coincided with a time when the behaviorist paradigm was prevalent in American psychology. There are also those who cite that, aside from behaviorist psychology, the origin of the concept could be traced back to systems engineering. While the impact of each of these fields is difficult to quantify, it is argued that the language and the "look and feel" of the early forms of instructional design and their progeny were derived from this engineering discipline. Specifically, they were linked to the training development model used by the U.S. military, which were based on systems approach and was explained as "the idea of viewing a problem or situation in its entirety with all its ramifications, with all its interior interactions, with all its exterior connections and with full cognizance of its place in its context."
The role of systems engineering in the early development of instructional design was demonstrated during World War II when a considerable amount of training materials for the military were developed based on the principles of instruction, learning, and human behavior. Tests for assessing a learner's abilities were used to screen candidates for the training programs. After the success of military training, psychologists began to view training as a system and developed various analysis, design, and evaluation procedures. In 1946, Edgar Dale outlined a hierarchy of instructional methods, organized intuitively by their concreteness. The framework first migrated to the industrial sector to train workers before it finally found its way to the education field.

1950s

In 1954, B. F. Skinner suggested that effective instructional materials, called programmed instructional materials, should include small steps, frequent questions, and immediate feedback; and should allow self-pacing. Robert F. Mager popularized the use of learning objectives. The article describes how to write objectives including desired behavior, learning condition, and assessment.
In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy with three domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. Bloom's taxonomy still influences the design of instruction.

1960s

introduced "criterion-referenced measures" in 1962. In contrast to norm-referenced tests in which an individual's performance is compared to group performance, a criterion-referenced test is designed to test an individual's behavior in relation to an objective standard. It can be used to assess the learners' entry level behavior, and to what extent learners have developed mastery through an instructional program.
In 1965, Robert Gagné described three domains of learning outcomes, five l, and nine events of instruction in the conditions of learning, which remain foundations of instructional design practices. Gagne's work in learning hierarchies and hierarchical analysis led to an important notion in instruction – to ensure that learners acquire prerequisite skills before attempting superordinate ones.
In 1967, after analyzing the failure of training material, Michael Scriven suggested the need for formative assessment – e.g., to try out instructional materials with learners before declaring them finalized.

1970s

During the 1970s, the number of instructional design models greatly increased and prospered in different sectors in military, academia, and industry. Many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory, which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials.

1980s

Although interest in instructional design continued to be strong in business and the military, there was little evolution of ID in schools or higher education.
However, educators and researchers began to consider how the personal computer could be used in a learning environment or a learning space. PLATO is one example of how computers began to be integrated into instruction. Many of the first uses of computers in the classroom were for "drill and skill" exercises. There was a growing interest in how cognitive psychology could be applied to instructional design.

1990s

During the 1990s, performance improvement also emerged as a key goal in the design process. The rise of the Internet introduced new tools for online learning, which were seen as effective for supporting learning. As both technology and constructivist theory evolved, classroom practices shifted—from basic drill-and-practice methods to more interactive, cognitively demanding activities.
By the late 1990s and early 2000s, the term learning design entered the field of educational technology. It reflected the idea that designers and instructors should choose an appropriate blend of behaviorist and constructivist strategies for their online courses. However, the underlying concept of designing for learning is likely as old as teaching itself. One definition describes learning design as “the description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of learning.”

2000–2010

In 2008, the Association for Educational Communications and Technology changed the definition of educational technology to "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources".

2010–2020

Academic degrees focused on integrating technology, internet, and human–computer interaction with education gained momentum with the introduction of Learning Design and Technology majors. Universities such as Bowling Green State University, Pennsylvania State University, Purdue, San Diego State University, Stanford, Harvard University of Georgia, California State University, Fullerton, and Carnegie Mellon University have established undergraduate and graduate degrees in technology-centered methods of designing and delivering education.
Informal learning became an area of growing importance in instructional design, particularly in the workplace. A 2014 study showed that formal training makes up only 4 percent of the 505 hours per year an average employee spends learning. It also found that the learning output of informal learning is equal to that of formal training. As a result of this and other research, more emphasis was placed on creating knowledge bases and other supports for self-directed learning.

Timeline

Models/Frameworks

ADDIE model

Perhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Model. This acronym stands for the five phases contained in the model: Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate.
The ADDIE model was initially developed by Florida State University to explain "the processes involved in the formulation of an instructional systems development program for military interservice training that will adequately train individuals to do a particular job, and which can also be applied to any interservice curriculum development activity." The model originally contained several steps under its five original phases, whose completion was expected before movement to the next phase could occur. Over the years, the steps were revised and eventually the model itself became more dynamic and interactive than its original hierarchical rendition, until its most popular version appeared in the mid-80s, as we understand it today.
Connecting all phases of the model are external and reciprocal opportunities for revision. As in the internal evaluation phase, revisions can be made throughout the entire process.
Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE model.

Bloom's Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a framework developed by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues in 1956, with the levels revised in 2001. It organizes cognitive skills to assist instructional designers in developing learning activities. As learners progress through the levels, they move from basic recall to concept application and, ultimately, knowledge integration and problem-solving.
The six levels are:
  1. Remember
  2. Understand
  3. Apply
  4. Analyze
  5. Evaluate
  6. Create

    Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction

According to Robert Gagné, learning occurs through a sequence of nine events, each representing a condition that must be met before progressing to the next. Similarly, instructional events are designed to mirror these learning events:
  1. Gaining attention: To ensure reception of coming instruction, the teacher gives the learners a stimulus. Before the learners can start to process any new information, the instructor must gain the attention of the learners. This might entail using abrupt changes in the instruction.
  2. Informing learners of objectives: The teacher tells the learner what they will be able to do because of the instruction. The teacher communicates the desired outcome to the group.
  3. Stimulating recall of prior learning: The teacher asks for recall of existing relevant knowledge.
  4. Presenting the stimulus: The teacher gives emphasis to distinctive features.
  5. Providing learning guidance: The teacher helps the students in understanding by providing organization and relevance.
  6. Eliciting performance: The teacher asks the learners to respond, demonstrating learning.
  7. Providing feedback: The teacher gives informative feedback on the learners' performance.
  8. Assessing performance: The teacher requires more learner performance, and gives feedback, to reinforce learning.
  9. Enhancing retention and transfer: The teacher provides varied practice to generalize the capability