Seonjo of Joseon
Seonjo, personal name Yi Yeon, was the 14th monarch of Joseon. He was known for promoting Korean Confucianism and attempting reforms at the beginning of his reign. However, he later gained infamy from the political discord and his incompetent leadership during the Imjin War.
Biography
Early life
King Seonjo was born Yi Yeon in 1552 in Hanseong, capital of Korea, as the third son of Prince Deokheung, himself son of King Jungjong and Royal Noble Consort Chang of the Ansan An clan.He was given the title of Prince Haseong, and was eventually adopted by Queen Insun. When King Myeongjong died young without an heir, Prince Haseong was the next in the line of succession. Then, by decision of the royal court, he was crowned king in 1567 at the age of 16. His father had the status of Grand Internal Prince.
Beginning of reign (1567–1575)
According to imperial sources, King Seonjo focused on improving the lives of the common people and rebuilding the nation after the political corruption of the chaotic reigns of kings Yeonsangun and Jungjong. He encouraged the Sarim scholars, who had been persecuted by the entrenched aristocracy in four literati purges between 1498 and 1545, during the reigns of Yeonsangun and Jungjong. Seonjo continued the political reforms of King Myeongjong and appointed many renowned Confucian scholars, including Yi Hwang, Yi I, Chŏng Ch'ŏl, and Yu Sŏngnyong, to office.Seonjo also reformed the civil service examination system, particularly the civil official qualification exam. The previous exam was primarily concerned with literature rather than politics or history. The king himself ordered the system to be reformed by increasing the importance of these other subjects. He also restored the reputations of executed scholars such as Cho Kwangjo, who died in the 1519 literati purge, and denounced the accomplishments of corrupt aristocrats, notably Nam Kon, who instigated the purge under Jungjong and contributed greatly to the corruption of the era. These acts earned the king the respect of the general populace, and the country enjoyed a brief era of peace.
Political division and East-West feud (1575–1592)
Among the scholars, King Seonjo called to the government were Shim Eui-gyeom and Kim Hyowŏn. Shim was a relative of the queen and heavily conservative. Kim was the leading figure of the new generation of officials and called for liberal reforms. The scholars who supported King Seonjo began to split into two factions, headed by Shim and Kim. Members of the two factions even lived in the same neighbourhood; Sim's faction lived on the west side of the city while Kim's followers gathered on the east side. Consequently, the two factions came to be known as the Westerners and the Easterners; this two-faction political system lasted 200 years and later contributed to the state's collapse.Initially, the Westerners earned the king's favour because Shim was related to the queen and enjoyed greater support from wealthy nobles. However, their attitudes on reformation and Shim's indecisiveness helped the Easterners take power, and the Westerners fell out of favor. Reforms were accelerated during the first period of Eastern influence, but many Easterners then urged others to slow the reforms. The Easterners divided further into Northern and Southern factions. Yu Sŏngnyong led the Southern faction while the Northerners divided even further after arguments over many issues; the greater Northern faction came to become extremely liberal in the scope of their reform goals, while the "lesser" Northern faction was less reformist but still more open to reform than the Southerners.
When Hideyoshi unified Japan in 1592, many Koreans began to fear that their country would be conquered and annexed. Many officials concerned with the kingdom's defence urged the king to send delegates to Hideyoshi, with the primary purpose of determining whether he was preparing an invasion. However, the two political factions disagreed on this, so one delegate from each faction was sent to Japan. When they returned to Korea, their reports only caused more controversy and confusion. Hwang Yun-gil, a Westerner, reported that Hideyoshi was raising huge numbers of troops, but Kim Sŏngil, an Easterner, told the king that he thought these large forces were not for the war against Korea since Toyotomi Hideyoshi was trying to complete his reforms quickly to prevent lawlessness and quash the bandits now roaming the countryside.
Since the Easterners had the bigger voice in government at the time, Hwang's reports were ignored and Seonjo decided not to prepare for war, even though the attitude of Hideyoshi in his letter to Seonjo clearly showed his interest in the conquest of Asia.
The factional infighting of the Joseon court, combined with the 1589 rebellion of Chŏng Yŏrip that led to the purge of more than 1,000 scholars affiliated with the Eastern faction, led to Joseon's military unpreparedness. Political divisions weakened the nation, as the size of the military was a key issue on the reform agenda. Yi I, a neutral conservative, urged the king to increase the size of the army to prepare against future invasions from Jurchen groups and the Ashikaga shogunate of Japan. However, both factions rejected Yi's suggestions, and the army's size was further reduced, as many believed the peaceful period would last. The Jurchens and Japanese used this opportunity to expand their influence in East Asia, resulting in repeated invasions by Toyotomi Hideyoshi's forces known as the Imjin War.
Imjin War (1592–1598)
In 1591, after the delegates had returned from Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi sent his own delegates to visit King Seonjo, and asked permission to pass through the Korean Peninsula to invade China, in effect declaring war against the Joseon kingdom. The king was surprised; after refusing the Japanese request he sent a letter to Beijing to alert the Chinese that the Japanese were actually preparing for full-scale war against the Korean-Chinese alliance. He also ordered the construction of many forts in the coastal regions and sent generals Sin Rip and Yi Il to the southern coast to prepare for war. While the Koreans were busy making their preparations, the Japanese manufactured muskets for many of their soldiers, mobilized warriors from across the entire country.On April 13, 1592, 700 Japanese ships carrying 18,700 troops under Konishi Yukinaga invaded Korea. Konishi burned Fort Busan and Fort Dongnae, killed commanders Chŏng Pal and Song Sanghyŏn and marched northward to Hanyang. On the next day, Katō Kiyomasa and Kuroda Nagamasa with 22,800 and 11,000 troops respectively landed, also marching toward Hanyang. The Japanese fleet under Todo Takatora and Kuki Yoshitaka supported them from the sea. General Yi Il faced Katō Kiyomasa at the Battle of Sangju, which was won by the Japanese. Yi Il met up with General Sin Rip and engaged Konishi's troops at the Battle of Chungju, but were defeated. Then Seonjo appointed General Kim Myeong-won as Commander-in-Chief and Field Marshal, and ordered him to defend the capital and moved to Pyongyang as the Japanese began encroaching upon the city. He later moved even further north to the border city of Uiju just before the fall of Pyongyang. While the king was absent from the capital, many people who had lost hope in the government plundered the palace and burned many public buildings, including the Gyeongbokgung. During Seonjo's stay at Uiju, he wrote the Joseon government's first public document written solely in Hangul, rather than Hanja. Historians believe that the king deliberately chose Hangul to ensure commoners could understand the message and to prevent the Japanese from understanding it.
Although the army continued to lose men and battles, the navy under Admiral Yi Sun-sin defeated the Japanese fleet several times and did much damage to the supply ships. With the navy blocking supplies, Ming forces arrived at the request of Seonjo and began to push the Japanese southward, eventually retaking Pyongyang. Konishi Yukinaga successfully blocked a Chinese advance at Battle of Byeokjegwan, and again tried to push the Koreans northward, but the crucial blow came at the Battle of Hangju, where General Gwon Yul defeated the Japanese with a much smaller force. The Japanese then decided to enter into peace negotiations, while both sides continued fighting. A month before he returned to Hanyang, Seonjo wrote an edict in Hangeul where anyone that either captured Japanese forces in battle, reported on invading troop movements, or rescued Korean prisoners would receive the title of government official regardless of class. During these negotiations Korean forces retook Hanseong, but the palaces had all been burnt to the ground, so Seonjo repaired one of the old royal family's houses and renamed it to Deoksugung, making it one of the official palaces.
The peace negotiations between the Chinese and Japanese ended unsuccessfully, due to disagreements between the two sides and misrepresentation of the Koreans. The Japanese again invaded Korea in 1597; but this time all three nations were ready for war, and the Japanese were not able to advance as easily as in 1592. The Japanese tried to take Hanyang from both land and sea routes. At first the plan seemed to work well when Todo Takatora defeated Admiral Wŏn Kyun at the Battle of Chilchonryang, but it was eventually thwarted when the Korean navy under Admiral Yi Sun-sin defeated the Japanese fleet under Todo Takatora in the Battle of Myeongnyang with only 13 ships. After the sudden death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1598, the Japanese completely withdrew from Korea in 1598. The ensuing Battle of Noryang marked the end of the war, with the last Japanese units under Konishi Yukinaga leaving Korea.