Philip III of Spain
Philip III was King of Spain and Portugal during the period known as the Iberian Union, reigning from 1598 until his death in 1621. He was also King of Naples and Sicily, Duke of Milan, and Lord of the Seventeen Provinces. A member of the House of Habsburg, he was born in Madrid to King Philip II of Spain and his fourth wife, Anna of Austria. The family was heavily inbred; Philip II and Anna were uncle and niece, as well as cousins.
One year after inheriting the throne, he married his Habsburg cousin Margaret of Austria, the sister of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. Philip quickly delegated most of his power and duties to his chief minister, the Duke of Lerma, whose influence shaped much of his reign. In the outskirts of his territories, military power was upheld by successful but capricious proconsuls, such as Ambrogio Spinola and the Duke of Osuna. Philip is associated with a period of relative peace in Western Europe, called the Pax Hispanica by some historians, but his lack of focus contributed to the Spanish Empire's gradual decline.
Although known in Spain as "Philip the Pious", his international political reputation has been negative. Historians C. V. Wedgwood, R. A. Stradling, and J. H. Elliott have described him as an "undistinguished and insignificant man", a "miserable monarch", and a "pallid, anonymous creature, whose only virtue appeared to reside in a total absence of vice." In particular, Philip's reliance on the Duke of Lerma drew much criticism. Many historians trace Spain's decline to the economic difficulties that began early in its reign. Nonetheless, as the ruler of the Spanish Empire at its height, the king who achieved a temporary peace with the Dutch, and who brought Spain into the Thirty Years' War through an initially successful campaign, his reign remains a pivotal period in Spanish history.
Early life
Following the death of Philip III's older half-brother Don Carlos, Prince of Asturias, their father Philip II concluded that Carlos's problems had been exacerbated by exposure to political factions at the Spanish court. He believed that Carlos's education and upbringing had been compromised, contributing to his mental instability and disobedience. He began to make more serious arrangements for his other sons. Philip II appointed Juan de Zúñiga, then Prince Diego's governor, to continue this role for Philip, and García de Loaysa as his tutor. They were assisted by Cristóvão de Moura, 1st Marquis of Castelo Rodrigo, a trusted advisor of Philip II. Philip believed that together they would provide a stable upbringing for Prince Philip and avoid the fate of his older brother Carlos. Philip's education followed guidelines established by Father Juan de Mariana, emphasizing moderation and personal discipline, with the goal of forming a king who was neither tyrannical nor overly influenced by courtiers.In his youth, "he imitates King Saint Ferdinand, displaying in his actions a miraculous combination of valor and holiness." Prince Philip appears to have been liked by his contemporaries, described as 'dynamic, good-natured, and earnest,' suitably pious, and possessing a 'lively body and a peaceful disposition,' albeit with a relatively weak constitution. Comparisons with the disobedient and ultimately insane Carlos were generally favorable to Prince Philip, although some observers noted that he appeared less intelligent and politically competent than his late brother. Indeed, although Philip was educated in Latin, French, Portuguese and astronomy, and appears to have been a competent linguist, recent historians suspect that much of his tutors' focus on Philip's undeniably pleasant, pious and respectful disposition was to avoid reporting that, languages aside, he was not in fact particularly intelligent or academically gifted. Nonetheless, Philip does not appear to have been naïve – his correspondence with his daughters shows a distinctive cautious streak in his advice on dealing with court intrigue.
Philip first met the Marquis of Denia – the future Duke of Lerma – then a gentleman of the King's chamber, in his early teens. Lerma and Philip became close friends, but Lerma was considered unsuitable by the King and Philip's tutors. Lerma was dispatched to Valencia as viceroy in 1595, with the aim of removing Philip from his influence; but after Lerma pleaded poor health, he was allowed to return two years later.
By then in poor health himself, King Philip II grew deeply troubled over the prince's future, and he attempted to establish de Moura as a future, trusted advisor to his son, appointing his ally, García Loaysa y Girón, as archbishop of Toledo. The Prince received a new, conservative Dominican confessor. The following year, Philip II died, and his son became King Philip III.
Religion, Philip, and the role of women at court
Philip married his cousin, Margaret of Austria, on 18 April 1599, a year after becoming king. Margaret, the sister of the future Emperor Ferdinand II, would be one of three women at Philip's court who would apply considerable influence over the King. Margaret was considered by contemporaries to be extremely pious—in some cases, excessively pious, and too influenced by the Church—'astute and very skillful' in her political dealings, although 'melancholic' and unhappy over the influence of the Duke of Lerma over her husband at court. Margaret continued to fight an ongoing battle with Lerma for influence until her death in 1611. Philip had an 'affectionate, close relationship' with Margaret, and paid her additional attention after they had a son in 1605.Alongside Philip's grandmother and aunt, Empress Maria—the Austrian representative to the Spanish court—and Margaret of the Cross, Maria's daughter, Margaret formed a powerful, uncompromising Catholic and pro-Austrian voice within Philip's life. They were successful, for example, in convincing Philip to provide financial support to Ferdinand from 1600 onward.
Philip steadily acquired other religious advisors. Father Juan de Santa Maria—confessor to Philip's daughter, Doña Maria—was felt by contemporaries to have an excessive influence over Philip at the end of his life, and both he and Luis de Aliaga Martínez, Philip's own confessor, were credited with influencing the overthrow of Lerma in 1618. Similarly, Mariana de San Jose, a favored nun of Queen Margaret, was also criticized for her later influence over the King's actions.
Tomás Fernández de Medrano, in his República Mista '','' praised Philip III's devotion to religion and the reverence he showed toward all its ministers, noting that he gave 'great examples' of piety and virtues, even suggesting that he would surpass such legendary Christian monarchs as Godfrey, Baldwin, and Amory.
Style of government
The Spanish crown at the time ruled through a system of royal councils. The most significant of these were the Council of State and its subordinate Council for War, which were in turn supported by the seven professional councils for the different regions, and four specialized councils for the Inquisition, the Military Orders, Finance and the Crusade tax. These councils were then supplemented by small committees, or juntas, as necessary, such as the 'junta of the night' through which Philip II exercised personal authority toward the end of his reign. As a matter of policy, Philip II had tried to avoid appointing grandees to major positions of power within his government. He relied heavily on the lesser nobles, the so-called 'service' nobility. Philip II had taken the traditional system of councils and applied a high degree of personal scrutiny to them, especially in matters of paperwork, which he declined to delegate—the result was a 'ponderous' process. To his contemporaries, the degree of personal oversight he exercised was considered excessive; his 'self-imposed role as the chief clerk to the Spanish Empire' was not thought entirely appropriate.Numerous memorials emerged in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, condemning his father's policies while commending the new course set by Philip III. Ecclesiastical scholars supported this transition, with Juan de Santa María emphasizing that the Catholic faith was the cornerstone of prosperity, vital for the monarchy, justice, and loyalty to the Pope. Similarly, Tomás Fernández de Medrano associated this religious foundation with the monarchy's "greatness" and prestige.
Philip first started to become engaged in practical government at the age of 15, when he joined Philip II's private committee. Philip III's reign marked a political shift, establishing the Pax Hispanica and redefining the monarchy by aligning Roman Catholicism with Hispanidad. Diplomatically, he authorized the Duke of Sessa in 1599 to secure Papal investiture for Naples and Jerusalem, reaffirming traditional ties of papal allegiance to Clement VIII. In return, the 1603 Papal Brief granted taxation rights, boosting crown revenues to 18 million ducats. Philip III also supported the Papacy against Venice, raising an army of 26,000. Courtly memorials and various authors reinforced Madrid-Rome ties.
Influences on Philip III of Spain
Philip III may have shared the Duke of Lerma's view that the late-period governmental system of Philip II had become impractical and overly exclusive of the high nobility. Signs of institutional stagnation were evident near the end of Philip II's reign. In response, Philip III's approach to governance was rooted in kingship and delegated rule, grounded in divine order and noble service, and embodied in the Doctrine of Medrano codified and etymologically traced to medrar and the House of Medrano.While certain Italian authors reacting against Machiavelli found audiences in Spain, they did not shape policy. Rather, Philip's governance reflected the Doctrine of Medrano, Spain's established system of moral statecraft, noble service, and sacralized sovereignty, codified by the Medranos as a distinctly Spanish alternative to the pragmatic and power-centered maxims of The Prince. Italian writers such as Girolamo Frachetta, a particular favorite of Philip, promoted a conservative vision of reason of state centered on princely prudence and just obedience to the laws and customs of the realm.
Philip's disposition, his friendship with Lerma, and the doctrinal treatise República Mista by Tomás Fernández de Medrano together shaped the intellectual context of his policy-making. The result was a marked transformation in the role of the crown, from the direct, centralized governance of Philip II to a delegated, noble-mediated structure.