Jiajing Emperor
The Jiajing Emperor, personal name Zhu Houcong, was the 12th emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1521 to 1567. He succeeded his cousin, the Zhengde Emperor.
The Jiajing Emperor was born as a cousin of the reigning Zhengde Emperor, so his accession to the throne was unexpected, but the government chose him as the new ruler after the Zhengde Emperor died without an heir. After his enthronement, the Jiajing Emperor came into conflict with his officials regarding the method of legalizing his accession. This conflict, known as the Great Rites Controversy, was a significant political issue at the beginning of his reign. After three years, the Emperor emerged victorious, with his main opponents either banished from court or executed.
The Jiajing Emperor, like the Zhengde Emperor, made the decision to reside outside of Beijing's Forbidden City. In 1542, he relocated to the West Park, located in the middle of Beijing and west of the Forbidden City. He constructed a complex of palaces and Taoist temples in the West Park, drawing inspiration from the Taoist belief in the Land of Immortals. Within the West Park, he surrounded himself with a group of loyal eunuchs, Taoist monks, and trusted advisers who assisted him in managing the state bureaucracy. Zhang Cong, Xia Yan, Yan Song, and Xu Jie each held senior roles in his government. In his later years, the Emperor's pursuit of immortality led to questionable actions, such as his interest in young girls and alchemy. He even sent Taoist priests across the land to collect rare minerals for life-extending potions. These elixirs contained harmful substances like arsenic, lead, and mercury, which ultimately caused health problems and may have shortened the Emperor's life.
At the start of the Jiajing era, the borders were relatively peaceful. In the north, the Mongols were initially embroiled in internal conflicts, but after being united by Altan Khan in the 1540s, they began to demand the restoration of free trade. The Emperor, however, refused and attempted to close the borders with fortifications, including the Great Wall of China. In response, Altan Khan launched raids and even attacked the outskirts of Beijing in 1550. The Ming troops were forced to focus on defense. Meanwhile, wokou pirates posed a significant threat in southeastern China for several decades. The Ming authorities attempted to address this issue by implementing stricter laws against private overseas trade in the 1520s, but piracy and related violence continued to escalate throughout the 1540s and reached its peak in the 1550s. These issues were not resolved until the Jiajing Emperor's son and successor, the Longqing Emperor, allowed foreign trade to resume. Despite the trade restrictions imposed by the Jiajing government and the incidence of the deadly 1556 Shaanxi earthquake in northern China, the economy continued to develop, with growth in agriculture, industry, and trade. As the economy flourished, so did society, with the traditional Confucian interpretation of Zhuism giving way to Wang Yangming's more individualistic beliefs.
Childhood
Zhu Houcong, the future Jiajing Emperor, was born on 16 September 1507. He was the eldest son of Zhu Youyuan, who was Prince of Xing from 1487. Zhu Youyuan was the fourth son of the Chenghua Emperor, who ruled the Ming dynasty from 1464 to 1487. His mother, Lady Shao, was one of the Emperor's concubines. Zhu Houcong's mother, surnamed Jiang, was the daughter of Jiang Xiao of Daxing in Beizhili. Jiang Xiao was an officer of the Beijing garrison. Zhu Houcong's parents from 1494 lived in Anlu zhou in Huguang in central China, where Zhu Houcong was born. His father, Zhu Youyuan, was known for his poetry and calligraphy.Zhu Houcong received a classical education directly from his father, to whom he was a diligent and attentive student. After his father died in July 1519, Zhu Houcong took on the responsibility of managing the household with the assistance of Yuan Zonggao, a capable administrator who later became a trusted advisor after Zhu Houcong's ascension to the throne in Beijing. Following the traditional period of mourning for his father's death, Zhu Houcong officially became the Prince of Xing in late March 1521.
Beginning of reign
Accession
Meanwhile, in Beijing, the Zhengde Emperor fell ill and died on 20 April 1521. His father, the Hongzhi Emperor, was the older brother of Zhu Youyuan. Zhu Houcong was the Zhengde Emperor's closest male relative.Before the Zhengde Emperor died, Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe, who was effectively leading the Ming government, had already begun preparations for the accession of Zhu Houcong. Five days prior to the Zhengde Emperor's death, an edict was issued ordering Zhu Houcong to end his mourning and officially assume the title of Prince of Xing. On the day of the Emperor's death, Yang Tinghe, with the support of eunuchs from the Directorate of Ceremonial in the Forbidden City and Empress Dowager Zhang, issued an edict calling for the prince to arrive in Beijing and ascend the throne.
However, there was uncertainty surrounding this matter due to the Ming succession law. According to this law, although Ming emperors were allowed to have multiple wives, only the sons of the Empress had the right to succeed to the throne. Any attempt to install a descendant of a concubine was punishable by death. Zhu Houcong's father, Zhu Youyuan, was not the son of the Empress, but rather of a concubine. Therefore, he had no legitimate claim to the throne. In order to circumvent this issue, Yang Tinghe proposed adopting Zhu Houcong as the Hongzhi Emperor's son, so he could ascend as the late Zhengde Emperor's younger brother.
In addition, there were many favorites of the deceased emperor living in Beijing who were afraid of changes. The most influential among them was General Jiang Bin, the commander of the border troops who had been transferred to Beijing. It was feared that he would try to install his own candidate for the throne, Zhu Junzhang, Prince of Dai, who was based in the border city of Datong.
The day after the Zhengde Emperor's death, a delegation of high-ranking dignitaries left Beijing for Anlu to inform Zhu Houcong of the situation. They arrived in Anlu on 2 May. Zhu Houcong accepted them, familiarized himself with the edict of Empress Dowager Zhang, and agreed to ascend the throne. On 7 May, he set out for Beijing accompanied by forty of his own advisers and servants. Yang Tinghe issued orders for him to be welcomed in Beijing as the heir to the throne, but Zhu Houcong refused to appear as the heir apparent, stating that he was invited to assume the imperial rank and was therefore the Emperor, not the son of the Emperor. According to the grand secretaries and the government, he was the son of the Hongzhi Emperor. He forced his way into the city with imperial honors and on the same day, 27 May 1521, he ceremoniously ascended the throne. The young emperor reportedly chose the name of his era himself, from his favorite chapter of the Book of Documents, with jia meaning "to improve, make splendid" and jing meaning "to pacify" in Chinese.
The proposal for the era name Shaozhi by the grand secretaries was rejected by the Jiajing Emperor. Shaozhi was a summary of the government's call for the new emperor to take the throne and follow the policies and rituals set by the founder of the dynasty in order to ensure proper governance. This expressed a desire for continuity in rule. The era name Jiajing means "admirable and tranquility" and is derived from a passage in the Book of Documents, in which the Duke of Zhou admonishes the young King Cheng and praises King Wu Ding of the Shang dynasty for his admirable and tranquil leadership. Wu Ding was commended for restoring the fallen prestige of the Shang dynasty not through force, but through the radiance of his virtue. Therefore, the era name Jiajing can be seen as a criticism of the state of the country and the Zhengde government, as well as a declaration of a policy of change and restoration. King Wen, the father of the founder of the Zhou dynasty, King Wu, is also contrasted with the unworthy last Shang king, Zhou. The Jiajing Emperor saw a parallel between King Wen, between Zhou and Wu, and between his noble father, the unworthy Zhengde Emperor, and himself. Therefore, he judged that he did not owe the throne to the grand secretaries, ministers, or the Empress Dowager, but to the virtues of his father recognized by the Heavens. This was the basis of his respect for his parents and his rejection of adoption in the Great Rites Controversy.
Great Rites Controversy
The new emperor's primary desire was to posthumously elevate his father to the imperial rank. In contrast, Yang Tinghe insisted on his formal adoption by the Hongzhi Emperor, in order to legitimize his claim to the throne and become the younger brother of the late Zhengde Emperor. The Jiajing Emperor and his mother rejected the adoption, citing the wording of the recall decree which did not mention it. The Emperor did not want to declare his parents as his uncle and aunt. Instead, he requested the elevation of his parents to the imperial status "to bring their ranks into line".Most officials agreed to maintain a direct line of succession and supported Yang Tinghe, but the Emperor argued for the duty to his biological parents. He insisted on his mother's acceptance as empress dowager when she arrived from Anlu and entered the Forbidden City on 2 November. A group of officials siding with the Emperor, led by Zhang Cong, had already formed. In late 1521, the Emperor succeeded in having his parents and grandmother, Lady Shao, granted imperial rank, but disputes continued until Yang was forced to resign in March 1524, and the removal of the Emperor's opponents began in August 1524. After a disapproving demonstration by hundreds of opposing officials in front of the gates of the audience hall, the opposition was beaten at court. 17 officials died from their wounds, and the rest were exiled to the provinces by the Emperor.
During the dispute, the Jiajing Emperor asserted his independence from the grand secretaries and made decisions based on his own judgment, rather than consulting with them or simply approving their proposals. This was seen as a despotic approach that went against the traditional way of governing, and was criticized by concerned scholars. As a result of the dispute, the teachings of Confucian scholar and reformer Wang Yangming gained popularity, as some of the Emperor's followers were influenced by his arguments. Additionally, there was an increase in critical analysis and interpretation of texts during discussions, and there was a growing criticism of the conservative attitudes of the Hanlin Academy.