High-fructose corn syrup
High-fructose corn syrup, also known as glucose–fructose syrup, and isoglucose, is a sweetener made from corn starch. As in the production of conventional corn syrup, the starch is broken down into glucose by enzymes. To make HFCS, the corn syrup is further processed with the enzyme D-xylose isomerase to convert some of its glucose into fructose. HFCS was first marketed in the early 1970s by the Clinton Corn Processing Company, together with the Japanese Agency of Industrial Science and Technology, where the enzyme was discovered in 1965.
As a sweetener, HFCS is often compared to granulated sugar, but manufacturing advantages of HFCS over sugar include that it is cheaper. "HFCS 42" and "HFCS 55" refer to dry weight fructose compositions of 42% and 55% respectively, the rest being glucose. HFCS 42 is mainly used for processed foods and breakfast cereals, whereas HFCS 55 is used mostly for production of soft drinks.
The United States Food and Drug Administration states that it is not aware of evidence showing that HFCS is less safe than traditional sweeteners such as sucrose and honey. Uses and exports of HFCS from American producers have grown steadily during the early 21st century.
Food
In the United States, HFCS is among the sweeteners that have mostly replaced sucrose in the food industry. Factors contributing to the increased use of HFCS in food manufacturing include production quotas of domestic sugar, import tariffs on foreign sugar, and subsidies of U.S. corn, raising the price of sucrose and reducing that of HFCS, creating a manufacturing-cost advantage among sweetener applications. In spite of having a 10% greater fructose content, the relative sweetness of HFCS 55, used most commonly in soft drinks, is comparable to that of sucrose. HFCS provides advantages in food and beverage manufacturing, such as simplicity of formulation, stability, and enabling processing efficiencies.HFCS is the primary ingredient in most brands of commercial "pancake syrup," as a less expensive substitute for maple syrup. Assays to detect adulteration of sweetened products with HFCS, such as liquid honey, use differential scanning calorimetry and other advanced testing methods.
Production
Process
In the contemporary process, corn is milled to extract corn starch and an acid–enzyme process is used, in which the corn-starch solution is acidified to begin breaking up the existing carbohydrates. High-temperature enzymes are added to further metabolize the starch and convert the resulting sugars to fructose. The first enzyme added is alpha-amylase, which breaks the long chains down into shorter sugar chains. Glucoamylase is mixed in and converts them to glucose. The resulting solution is filtered to remove protein using activated carbon. Then the solution is demineralized using ion-exchange resins. That purified solution is then run over immobilized xylose isomerase, which turns the sugars to ~50–52% glucose with some unconverted oligosaccharides and 42% fructose, and again demineralized and again purified using activated carbon. Some is processed into HFCS 90 by liquid chromatography, and then mixed with HFCS 42 to form HFCS 55. The enzymes used in the process are made by microbial fermentation.Composition and varieties
HFCS is 24% water, the rest being mainly fructose and glucose with 0–5% unprocessed glucose oligomers.The most common forms of HFCS used for food and beverage manufacturing contain fructose in either 42% or 55% by dry weight, as described in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations.
- HFCS 42 is used in beverages, processed foods, cereals, and baked goods.
- HFCS 55 is mostly used in soft drinks.
- HFCS 70 is used in filling jellies.
Commerce and consumption
China
HFCS in China makes up about 20% of sweetener demand. HFCS has gained popularity due to rising prices of sucrose, while selling for a third the price. Production was estimated to reach 4,150,000 tonnes in 2017. About half of total produced HFCS is exported to the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, and India.European Union
In the European Union, HFCS is known as isoglucose or glucose–fructose syrup which has 20–30% fructose content compared to 42% and 55% in the United States. While HFCS is produced exclusively with corn in the U.S., manufacturers in the EU use corn and wheat to produce GFS. GFS was once subject to a sugar production quota, which was abolished on 1 October 2017, removing the previous production cap of 720,000 tonnes, and allowing production and export without restriction. Use of GFS in soft drinks is limited in the EU because manufacturers do not have a sufficient supply of GFS containing at least 42% fructose content. As a result, soft drinks are primarily sweetened by sucrose, which has a 50% fructose content.Japan
In Japan, HFCS is also referred to as 異性化糖. HFCS production arose in Japan after government policies created a rise in the price of sugar. Japanese HFCS is manufactured mostly from imported U.S. corn, and the output is regulated by the government. For the period from 2007 to 2012, HFCS had a 27–30% share of the Japanese sweetener market. Japan consumed approximately 800,000 tonnes of HFCS in 2016. The United States Department of Agriculture states that HFCS is produced in Japan from U.S. corn. Japan imports at a level of 3 million tonnes per year, leading 20 percent of corn imports to be for HFCS production.Mexico
Mexico is the largest importer of U.S. HFCS. HFCS accounts for about 27 percent of total sweetener consumption, with Mexico importing 983,069 tonnes of HFCS in 2018. Mexico's soft drink industry is shifting from sugar to HFCS which is expected to boost U.S. HFCS exports to Mexico according to a U.S. Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service report.On 1 January 2002, Mexico imposed a 20% beverage tax on soft drinks and syrups not sweetened with cane sugar. The United States challenged the tax, appealing to the World Trade Organization. On 3 March 2006, the WTO ruled in favor of the U.S. citing the tax as discriminatory against U.S. imports of HFCS without being justified under WTO rules.
Philippines
The Philippines was the largest importer of Chinese HFCS. Imports of HFCS would peak at 373,137 tonnes in 2016. Complaints from domestic sugar producers would result in a crackdown on Chinese exports. On 1 January 2018, the Philippine government imposed a tax of 12 pesos on drinks sweetened with HFCS versus 6 pesos for drinks sweetened with other sugars.United States
In the United States, HFCS has been widely used in food manufacturing since the 1970s, primarily as a replacement for sucrose because of its similar sweetness. HFCS improved manufacturing quality, was easier to use, and was cheaper. Domestic production of HFCS increased from 2.2 million tons in 1980 to a peak of 9.5 million tons in 1999. Although HFCS use is about the same as sucrose use in the United States, more than 90% of sweeteners used in global manufacturing is sucrose.Production of HFCS in the United States was 8.3 million tons in 2017. HFCS is easier to handle than granulated sucrose, although some sucrose is transported as solution. Unlike sucrose, HFCS cannot be hydrolyzed, but the free fructose in HFCS may produce hydroxymethylfurfural when stored at high temperatures; these differences are most prominent in acidic beverages. Soft drink makers such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi continue to use sugar in other nations but transitioned to HFCS for U.S. markets in 1980 before completely switching over in 1984. Large corporations, such as Archer Daniels Midland, lobby for the continuation of government corn subsidies.
Consumption of HFCS in the U.S. has declined since it peaked at per person in 1999. The average American consumed approximately of HFCS in 2018, versus of refined cane and beet sugar. This decrease in domestic consumption of HFCS resulted in a push in exporting of the product. In 2014, exports of HFCS were valued at $436 million, a decrease of 21% in one year, with Mexico receiving about 75% of the export volume.
In 2010, the Corn Refiners Association petitioned the FDA to call HFCS "corn sugar," but the petition was denied.
Vietnam
90% of Vietnam's HFCS import comes from China and South Korea. Imports would total 89,343 tonnes in 2017. One ton of HFCS was priced at $398 in 2017, while one ton of sugar would cost $702. HFCS has a zero cent import tax and no quota, while sugarcane under quota has a 5% tax, and white and raw sugar not under quota have an 85% and 80% tax. In 2018, the Vietnam Sugarcane and Sugar Association called for government intervention on current tax policies. According to the VSSA, sugar companies face tighter lending policies which cause the association's member companies with increased risk of bankruptcy.Health
Nutrition
HFCS is 76% carbohydrates and 24% water, containing no fat, protein, or micronutrients in significant amounts. In a 100-gram reference amount, it supplies 281 calories, while in one tablespoon of 19 grams, it supplies 53 calories.Obesity and metabolic syndrome
The role of fructose in metabolic syndrome has been the subject of controversy, but as of 2022, there is no scientific consensus that fructose or HFCS has any impact on cardiometabolic markers when substituted for sucrose. A 2014 systematic review found little evidence for an association between HFCS consumption and liver diseases, enzyme levels or fat content.A 2018 review found that lowering consumption of sugary beverages and fructose products may reduce hepatic fat accumulation, which is associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. In 2018, the American Heart Association recommended that people limit total added sugar in their diets to nine teaspoons per day for men and six teaspoons for women.