Health in India
India's population in 2024 as per World Bank is 1.45 billion. Being the world's most populous country and one of its fastest-growing economies, India experiences both challenges and opportunities in context of public health. India is a hub for pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries; world-class scientists, clinical trials and hospitals yet country faces daunting public health challenges like child undernutrition, neonatal and maternal mortality, rising non‑communicable diseases, and road traffic accident cases.
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that India is fulfilling 80.5% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to health based on its level of income. When looking at the right to health with respect to children, India achieves 92.1% of what is expected based on its current income. In regards to the right to health amongst the adult population, the country achieves only 85.6% of what is expected based on the nation's level of income. India falls into the "very bad" category when evaluating the right to reproductive health because the nation is fulfilling only 63.7% of what the nation is expected to achieve based on the resources it has available.
History
Traditional Indian systems of medicine
India's traditional medicine systems have evolved over thousands of years, rooted in holistic principles and closely linked to the country's cultural and spiritual heritage. The most prominent among these are Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Yoga, and various folk traditions.Ayurveda originated during the Vedic period and emphasizes balance between three doshas—Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. Foundational texts like the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita detail diagnostic methods, therapies, and surgical techniques. Sushruta, often regarded as the "Father of Surgery", described procedures like nasal reconstruction and cataract surgery.
Siddha medicine, practiced mainly in Tamil Nadu, uses herbs, minerals, and alchemical methods, and traces its origins to sages like Agastya. Unani medicine, introduced during medieval Islamic rule, is based on the four-humor theory and was expanded in India by physicians like Hakim Ajmal Khan. Naturopathy integrates traditional Indian practices such as fasting, mud therapy, and hydrotherapy.
Traditional healers—vaidyas and hakims—served as community healthcare providers, passing down knowledge through oral traditions and manuscripts.
During the British Raj, these systems were marginalized in favor of Western medicine, but they persisted at the grassroots level. In recent decades, revival efforts have led to formal recognition under AYUSH, with the Ministry of AYUSH established in 2014. Today, these systems are being increasingly integrated into national health programs and the Global wellness industry.
Modern medicine in India
Modern Western medicine was introduced to India during the British colonial period in the 18th and 19th centuries. It gradually became institutionalized through the establishment of hospitals, medical colleges, and public health departments.Role of Christian missionaries in modern medicine
played a foundational role in the early development of Western healthcare services in India, especially in rural and underserved regions. Their contributions included:- Introduction of Western medical practices: Missionaries were often the first to introduce allopathic medicine to remote regions, offering services regardless of caste, gender, or religion.
- Leprosy care: Christian missionaries played a significant role in organizing care for people with leprosy in colonial and pre-independence India. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, leprosy patients in India were heavily stigmatized and often faced severe social exclusion. In some regions, traditional beliefs led to practices where individuals afflicted with leprosy were either buried or burned alive, based on the notion that a violent death would purify the body for reincarnation into a healthier form. In 1874, Irish missionary Wellesley Bailey founded what became the Leprosy Mission in Ambala, establishing structured care for leprosy patients, including housing and basic medical attention. One of the earliest leprosy hospitals in India was founded in Almora in 1835 and later managed by the London Missionary Society with support from The Mission to Lepers. These institutions operated largely in rural and underserved regions, offering segregated facilities for men and women, and separate housing for uninfected children born to affected parents. By the early 20th century, over 200 leprosy homes and asylums were operating in India, with a large number managed or supported by Christian missions. These facilities functioned before any effective treatment was available and largely provided custodial care. Later, significant medical advances were introduced at institutions such as the Christian Medical College & Hospital, Vellore, where Dr. Paul Brand pioneered reconstructive surgery to restore hand and foot function in patients with nerve damage from leprosy. In the late 20th century, missionaries like Graham Staines continued this work; in 1982, he founded the Mayurbhanj Leprosy Home in Odisha, where he and his wife Gladys provided care, education, and vocational support to patients until his death in 1999. These missionary efforts laid the groundwork for broader public health responses to leprosy in India prior to the introduction of multidrug therapy by the World Health Organization in 1981.
- Institutional legacy: Several prominent medical institutions were established by missionaries:
Christian Medical College & Hospital, Vellore, Christian Medical College, Ludhiana, Clara Swain Hospital, Bareilly, Scudder Memorial Hospital, Ranipet, Holdsworth Memorial Hospital, Mysore, Thiruvalla Medical Mission Hospital, Kerala, Lady Willingdon Hospital, Manali, Bangalore Baptist Hospital, Miraj Medical Centre, Maharashtra, Baptist Christian Hospital, Tezpur, Emmanuel Hospital, Kota, Bishop's Hospital, Nagercoil, Madhubani Medical Mission, Bihar, and Kothara Hospital, Nagpur.
- Christian Medical College & Hospital, Vellore, now one of Asia's leading teaching hospitals.
- Christian Medical College Ludhiana, the first medical school for women in Asia.
- Clara Swain Hospital, established in Bareilly in 1874 by Dr. Clara Swain, the first hospital in Asia for women.
- Public health and epidemic response: Missionaries were on the frontlines during cholera, plague, and smallpox outbreaks. Dr. Mary Rajanayagam and others served selflessly during epidemics, sometimes risking their lives.
- Women's health and education: Missionary hospitals and schools provided education and training for Indian women in nursing and medicine—an unprecedented step in a conservative social environment.
- Community outreach: Mobile clinics, vaccination drives, maternal care programs, and sanitation education initiated by missions laid early foundations for modern primary healthcare models in India.
Major health indicators
The life expectancy at birth has increased from 49.7 years in 1970–1975 to 67.9 years in 2010–2014. For the same period, the life expectancy for females is 69.6 year and 66.4 years for males. In 2018, the life expectancy at birth is said to be 69.1 years.The infant mortality rate has declined from 74 per 1,000 live births in 1994 to 37 per 1,000 live births in 2015. However, the differentials of rural and urban as of 2015 are still high. In 2016, the infant mortality rate was estimated to be 34.6 per 1,000 live births.
The under-five mortality rate for the country was 113 per 1,000 live births in 1994 whereas in 2018 it reduced to 41.1 per 1,000 live births.
The maternal mortality ratio has declined from 212 per 100 000 live births in 2007–2009 to 167 per 100 000 live births in 2011–2013. However, the differentials for state Kerala and Assam as of 2011–2013 are still high. In 2013, the maternal mortality ratio was estimated to be 190 per 100 000 live births.
The total fertility rate for the country was 2.3 in rural areas whereas it has been 1.8 in urban areas during 2015.
The most common cause of disability adjusted life years lost for Indian citizens as of 2016 for all ages and sexes was ischemic heart disease, 2nd chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 3rd diarrhea and 4th lower respiratory infections.
As per the figures about the child mortality rate which is quite a big hurdle for the government, the 2nd most common cause of DALYs lost for children under 5 years of age was diseases like diarrhea, lower respiratory tract infections and other communicable diseases as of 2016 which can be preventable.
A demographic study found that, compared to 2019, life expectancy at birth was 2.6 years lower and mortality was 17% higher in 2020, implying 1.19 million excess deaths in 2020. The study also found, in contrast to global patterns, females in India experienced a life expectancy decline that was 1 year larger than losses for males. In addition, the researchers found that in 2020, the life expectancy of an upper-caste Hindu dropped 1.3 years, compared to 2.7 years for those of a 'scheduled caste' and 5.4 years for Indian Muslims. The study results were contested by the Government of India.