Gold mining
Gold mining is the extraction of gold by mining.
Historically, gold mining from alluvial deposits used manual separation processes, such as gold panning. The expansion of gold mining to ores that are below the surface has led to more complex extraction processes such as pit mining and gold cyanidation. In the 20th and 21st centuries, large corporations produce the vast majority of the gold mined. However, as a result of the increasing value of gold, there are also millions of small, artisanal miners in many parts of the Global South.
As with all mining, human rights and environmental issues are important issues in the gold mining industry, and can result in environmental conflict. In mines with less regulation, health and safety risks are much higher.
History
The exact date when humans first began to mine gold is unknown, but some of the oldest known gold artifacts have been found in the Varna Necropolis in Bulgaria. The graves of the necropolis were built between 4700 and 4200 BC, indicating that gold mining could be over 6,700 years old. During a series of excavations carried out between 1878 and 1992, several graves were found with more than of gold. A group of German and Georgian archaeologists claims the Sakdrisi site in southern Georgia, dating to the 3rd or 4th millennium BC, may be the world's oldest known gold mine.Ancient times
Prehistoric period
Gold has been prized by most human cultures since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence suggests that humans were mining gold as far back as 4000 BCE, with some of the earliest known gold artifacts dating back to ancient Mesopotamia. Particularly in the region of present-day Iraq, gold was mined extensively. Around 2500 BCE, the ancient Sumerians developed sophisticated techniques for extracting gold from alluvial deposits and underground mines. These techniques included the use of sluice boxes.Ancient Egypt
Evidence suggests that Nubia had sporadic access to gold nuggets during the Neolithic and Prehistoric periods. Gold mining in Egypt involved both surface mining, such as panning for gold in riverbeds, and underground mining, where tunnels were dug to extract gold-bearing quartz veins. During the Bronze Age, sites in the Eastern Desert became a great source of gold for nomadic Nubians, who used two-handed mallets and grindingore extraction. By the Old Kingdom, the oval mallet was introduced for mining. By the Middle Kingdom, stone mortars to process ores and a new gold-washing technique were introduced. During the New Kingdom, Nubian mining expanded under Egyptian occupation with the invention of the grinding mill.
Ancient Egypt may have used gold mining as a form of punishment following a judgment for breach of order, thus condemning slaves to endure this task indefinitely until they were exhausted and died.
Gold was associated with the sun god Ra and was believed to be eternal and indestructible, symbolising the pharaoh's divine power and afterlife. Gold has also been found in the tombs of Tutankhamun and other pharaohs.
Ancient Rome and Greece
During the Bronze Age, gold objects were also plentiful, especially in Ireland and Spain. Romans employed slave labour and used hydraulic mining methods, such as hushing and ground sluicing on a large scale to extract gold from extensive alluvial deposits, such as those at Las Medulas. Mining was under the control of the state, but the mines may have been leased to civilian contractors later. Gold served as the primary medium of exchange within the empire, and was an important motive for the Roman conquest of Britain by Claudius in the first century AD, although there is only one known Roman gold mine at Dolaucothi in west Wales. Gold was a prime motivation for the campaign in Dacia when the Romans invaded Transylvania in what is now modern Romania in the second century AD. The legions were led by the emperor Trajan, and their exploits are shown on Trajan's Column in Rome and the several reproductions of the column elsewhere. Under the Eastern Roman Empire during Emperor Justinian's rule, gold was mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Egypt, and Nubia.Ancient Asia
In India, in the Kolar Gold Fields in Bangarpet Taluk, Kolar district of Karnataka state, gold was first mined before the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE by digging small pits. Golden objects found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro have been traced to Kolar through the analysis of impuritiesthe impurities include 11% silver concentration, found only in KGF ore. The Champion reef at the KGF was mined to a depth of during the Gupta period in the 5th century CE. During the Chola Empire in the 9th and 10th centuries CE, the scale of the operation grew. The metal continued to be mined by the 11th-century kings of South India, during the Vijayanagara Empire from 1336 to 1560, and later by Tipu Sultan, the defacto administrator Mysore state, and by the British. It is estimated that the total gold production in Karnataka to date is 1000 tons.Ancient South America
In South America, gold mining in the Andes dates back thousands of years, with the Inca empire employing extensive gold mining operations in regions such as present-day Peru and Ecuador. They used stone tools and simple mining techniques to extract gold from rivers, streams, and surface deposits.Middle Ages: European gold rushes
During the Middle Ages, there were several gold rushes in Europe. These were often small-scale and localised, compared to gold rushes later in history.Transylvania
There was a gold rush in the Kingdom of Hungary, primarily in the region of Transylvania, during the medieval period. Transylvania was known for its rich mineral resources including gold, silver, and other metals. Miners in Transylvania used both surface and underground mining techniques to extract gold from alluvial deposits and veins. These methods included panning, sluicing, and rudimentary shaft mining.Slovakia
The mining of the deposit in present-day Slovakia primarily around Kremnica was the largest of the Medieval period in Europe.Scotland
The Kildonan Gold Rush, primarily in the Scottish Highlands, occurred during the 16th and 17th centuries. Gold deposits were discovered in rivers and streams, leading to a surge in prospecting and mining activity. The Scottish Crown took an interest in gold discoveries, in the hope of aiding the kingdom's economy and revenue. King James IV of Scotland established a royal mint to produce gold coins from Scottish gold. The Scottish gold rush eventually waned due to factors such as the depletion of easily accessible gold deposits, harsh weather conditions, and the political instability at the time.Wales
There was a gold rush in Wales, in the Dolgellau area of Gwynedd, during the 19th century. Gold deposits were discovered in Welsh mountains, with reports of gold being found in the Mawddach and Tryweryn rivers. By the mid-19th century, commercial mining operations had begun. Wales' gold gained popularity for its quality and rarity, leading to its use in royal jewellery for the British royal family.Modern era
California gold rush
During the 19th century, numerous gold rushes in remote regions around the globe caused large migrations of miners, such as the California Gold Rush of 1849. This is one of the most famous gold rushes in history. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California sparked a massive migration of people from around the world to California in search of gold. The rush significantly accelerated westward expansion in the United States and had profound effects on the region's economy and society.Australian gold rushes
The gold rushes in Australia began in 1851 when Edward Hargraves, a prospector, discovered gold near Bathurst, New South Wales. The best-known gold rush in Australia was the Victorian gold rush. Thousands of people, known as "diggers", came to Australia from around the world in search of gold, which ultimately contributed to the growth of cities like Melbourne and Sydney.South African gold rush
The discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand led to the Second Boer War and ultimately the founding of South Africa. This transformed the region into one of the wealthiest gold-producing areas in the world. This rush played a crucial role in the development of South Africa's economy and led to the establishment of Johannesburg, known as the 'city of gold'. Gold-bearing reefs in the neighbouring Free State province were found shortly thereafter, driving significant development in the region with the establishment of the Free State goldfields.Klondike Gold Rush
Also known as the Yukon Gold Rush, this brought prospectors from around the world to the Klondike region of the Yukon territory in Canada. The Klondike Gold Rush began in 1896, when gold was discovered in Bonanza Creek, a tributary of the Klondike River by George Carmack and his Indigenous companions, Skookum Jim Mason and Tagish Charlie. As prospectors arrived in Klondike, makeshift towns and settlements sprang up along the rivers, including Dawson City, which became the largest town in Yukon at the height of the gold rush. Prospectors employed various mining techniques to extract gold from the Klondike's streams and riverbeds, including placer mining, dredging, and hydraulic mining.The Carlin Trend
The Carlin Trend of Nevada, U.S., was discovered in 1961.Statistics
World gold production was 3,612 tonnes in 2022. the world's largest gold producer was China with 380 tonnes of gold mined in that year. The second-largest producer of gold was Russia where 310 tonnes was mined in the same year, followed by Australia with 290 tonnes. In 2023, the annual gold demand of 4,448 tonnes was 5% below that of 2022. The total gold demand in 2023 was the highest at 4,899 tonnes.Despite its decreasing concentration in ores, gold production is increasing. This increase can be achieved through ever larger-scale industrial installations as well as innovations, especially in hydrometallurgy.