Fermat pseudoprime

In number theory, the Fermat pseudoprimes make up the most important class of pseudoprimes that come from Fermat's little theorem.

Definition

Fermat's little theorem states that if is prime and is coprime to, then is divisible by. For a positive integer, if a composite integer divides then is called a Fermat pseudoprime to base.
In other words, a composite integer is a Fermat pseudoprime to base if it successfully passes the Fermat primality test for the base. The false statement that all numbers that pass the Fermat primality test for base 2 are prime is called the Chinese hypothesis.
The smallest base-2 Fermat pseudoprime is 341. It is not a prime, since it equals 11·31, but it satisfies Fermat's little theorem: and thus passes the
Fermat primality test for the base 2.
Pseudoprimes to base 2 are sometimes called Sarrus numbers, after P. F. Sarrus who discovered that 341 has this property, Poulet numbers, after P. Poulet who made a table of such numbers, or Fermatians.
A Fermat pseudoprime is often called a pseudoprime, with the modifier Fermat being understood.
An integer that is a Fermat pseudoprime for all values of that are coprime to is called a Carmichael number.

Properties

Distribution

There are infinitely many pseudoprimes to any given base. In 1904, Cipolla showed how to produce an infinite number of pseudoprimes to base : let and let, where is a prime number that does not divide. Then is composite, and is a pseudoprime to base. For example, if and, then,, and is a pseudoprime to base.
In fact, there are infinitely many strong pseudoprimes to any base greater than 1 and infinitely many Carmichael numbers, but they are comparatively rare. There are three pseudoprimes to base 2 below 1000, 245 below one million, and 21853 less than 25·10⁹. There are 4842 strong pseudoprimes base 2 and 2163 Carmichael numbers below this limit.
Starting at 17·257, the product of consecutive Fermat numbers is a base-2 pseudoprime, and so are all Fermat composites and Mersenne composites.
The probability of a composite number n passing the Fermat test approaches zero for. Specifically, Kim and Pomerance showed the following: The probability that a random odd number is a Fermat pseudoprime to a random base is less than 2.77·10⁻⁸ for x= 10¹⁰⁰, and is at most ⁻¹⁹⁷<10^−10,000 for x≥10^100,000. For a fixed base b, the proportion of pseudoprimes up to x is at most e^{-log x log log log x/} for large x.

Factorizations

The factorizations of the 60 Poulet numbers up to 60787, including 13 Carmichael numbers, are in the following table.

A Poulet number all of whose divisors d divide 2^d − 2 is called a super-Poulet number. There are infinitely many Poulet numbers which are not super-Poulet Numbers.

Smallest Fermat pseudoprimes

The smallest pseudoprime for each base a ≤ 200 is given in the following table; the colors mark the number of prime factors. Unlike in the definition at the start of the article, pseudoprimes below a are excluded in the table.

a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p
1	4 = 2²	51	65 = 5 · 13	101	175 = 5² · 7	151	175 = 5² · 7
2	341 = 11 · 31	52	85 = 5 · 17	102	133 = 7 · 19	152	153 = 3² · 17
3	91 = 7 · 13	53	65 = 5 · 13	103	133 = 7 · 19	153	209 = 11 · 19
4	15 = 3 · 5	54	55 = 5 · 11	104	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	154	155 = 5 · 31
5	124 = 2² · 31	55	63 = 3² · 7	105	451 = 11 · 41	155	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
6	35 = 5 · 7	56	57 = 3 · 19	106	133 = 7 · 19	156	217 = 7 · 31
7	25 = 5²	57	65 = 5 · 13	107	133 = 7 · 19	157	186 = 2 · 3 · 31
8	9 = 3²	58	133 = 7 · 19	108	341 = 11 · 31	158	159 = 3 · 53
9	28 = 2² · 7	59	87 = 3 · 29	109	117 = 3² · 13	159	247 = 13 · 19
10	33 = 3 · 11	60	341 = 11 · 31	110	111 = 3 · 37	160	161 = 7 · 23
11	15 = 3 · 5	61	91 = 7 · 13	111	190 = 2 · 5 · 19	161	190 = 2 · 5 · 19
12	65 = 5 · 13	62	63 = 3² · 7	112	121 = 11²	162	481 = 13 · 37
13	21 = 3 · 7	63	341 = 11 · 31	113	133 = 7 · 19	163	186 = 2 · 3 · 31
14	15 = 3 · 5	64	65 = 5 · 13	114	115 = 5 · 23	164	165 = 3 · 5 · 11
15	341 = 11 · 31	65	112 = 2⁴ · 7	115	133 = 7 · 19	165	172 = 2² · 43
16	51 = 3 · 17	66	91 = 7 · 13	116	117 = 3² · 13	166	301 = 7 · 43
17	45 = 3² · 5	67	85 = 5 · 17	117	145 = 5 · 29	167	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
18	25 = 5²	68	69 = 3 · 23	118	119 = 7 · 17	168	169 = 13²
19	45 = 3² · 5	69	85 = 5 · 17	119	177 = 3 · 59	169	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
20	21 = 3 · 7	70	169 = 13²	120	121 = 11²	170	171 = 3² · 19
21	55 = 5 · 11	71	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	121	133 = 7 · 19	171	215 = 5 · 43
22	69 = 3 · 23	72	85 = 5 · 17	122	123 = 3 · 41	172	247 = 13 · 19
23	33 = 3 · 11	73	111 = 3 · 37	123	217 = 7 · 31	173	205 = 5 · 41
24	25 = 5²	74	75 = 3 · 5²	124	125 = 5³	174	175 = 5² · 7
25	28 = 2² · 7	75	91 = 7 · 13	125	133 = 7 · 19	175	319 = 11 · 19
26	27 = 3³	76	77 = 7 · 11	126	247 = 13 · 19	176	177 = 3 · 59
27	65 = 5 · 13	77	247 = 13 · 19	127	153 = 3² · 17	177	196 = 2² · 7²
28	45 = 3² · 5	78	341 = 11 · 31	128	129 = 3 · 43	178	247 = 13 · 19
29	35 = 5 · 7	79	91 = 7 · 13	129	217 = 7 · 31	179	185 = 5 · 37
30	49 = 7²	80	81 = 3⁴	130	217 = 7 · 31	180	217 = 7 · 31
31	49 = 7²	81	85 = 5 · 17	131	143 = 11 · 13	181	195 = 3 · 5 · 13
32	33 = 3 · 11	82	91 = 7 · 13	132	133 = 7 · 19	182	183 = 3 · 61
33	85 = 5 · 17	83	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	133	145 = 5 · 29	183	221 = 13 · 17
34	35 = 5 · 7	84	85 = 5 · 17	134	135 = 3³ · 5	184	185 = 5 · 37
35	51 = 3 · 17	85	129 = 3 · 43	135	221 = 13 · 17	185	217 = 7 · 31
36	91 = 7 · 13	86	87 = 3 · 29	136	265 = 5 · 53	186	187 = 11 · 17
37	45 = 3² · 5	87	91 = 7 · 13	137	148 = 2² · 37	187	217 = 7 · 31
38	39 = 3 · 13	88	91 = 7 · 13	138	259 = 7 · 37	188	189 = 3³ · 7
39	95 = 5 · 19	89	99 = 3² · 11	139	161 = 7 · 23	189	235 = 5 · 47
40	91 = 7 · 13	90	91 = 7 · 13	140	141 = 3 · 47	190	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
41	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	91	115 = 5 · 23	141	355 = 5 · 71	191	217 = 7 · 31
42	205 = 5 · 41	92	93 = 3 · 31	142	143 = 11 · 13	192	217 = 7 · 31
43	77 = 7 · 11	93	301 = 7 · 43	143	213 = 3 · 71	193	276 = 2² · 3 · 23
44	45 = 3² · 5	94	95 = 5 · 19	144	145 = 5 · 29	194	195 = 3 · 5 · 13
45	76 = 2² · 19	95	141 = 3 · 47	145	153 = 3² · 17	195	259 = 7 · 37
46	133 = 7 · 19	96	133 = 7 · 19	146	147 = 3 · 7²	196	205 = 5 · 41
47	65 = 5 · 13	97	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	147	169 = 13²	197	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
48	49 = 7²	98	99 = 3² · 11	148	231 = 3 · 7 · 11	198	247 = 13 · 19
49	66 = 2 · 3 · 11	99	145 = 5 · 29	149	175 = 5² · 7	199	225 = 3² · 5²
50	51 = 3 · 17	100	153 = 3² · 17	150	169 = 13²	200	201 = 3 · 67

List of Fermat pseudoprimes in fixed base ''n''

n	First few Fermat pseudoprimes in base n	OEIS sequence
1	4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100,...
2	341, 561, 645, 1105, 1387, 1729, 1905, 2047, 2465, 2701, 2821, 3277, 4033, 4369, 4371, 4681, 5461, 6601, 7957, 8321, 8481, 8911,...
3	91, 121, 286, 671, 703, 949, 1105, 1541, 1729, 1891, 2465, 2665, 2701, 2821, 3281, 3367, 3751, 4961, 5551, 6601, 7381, 8401, 8911,...
4	15, 85, 91, 341, 435, 451, 561, 645, 703, 1105, 1247, 1271, 1387, 1581, 1695, 1729, 1891, 1905, 2047, 2071, 2465, 2701, 2821, 3133, 3277, 3367, 3683, 4033, 4369, 4371, 4681, 4795, 4859, 5461, 5551, 6601, 6643, 7957, 8321, 8481, 8695, 8911, 9061, 9131, 9211, 9605, 9919,...
5	4, 124, 217, 561, 781, 1541, 1729, 1891, 2821, 4123, 5461, 5611, 5662, 5731, 6601, 7449, 7813, 8029, 8911, 9881,...
6	35, 185, 217, 301, 481, 1105, 1111, 1261, 1333, 1729, 2465, 2701, 2821, 3421, 3565, 3589, 3913, 4123, 4495, 5713, 6533, 6601, 8029, 8365, 8911, 9331, 9881,...
7	6, 25, 325, 561, 703, 817, 1105, 1825, 2101, 2353, 2465, 3277, 4525, 4825, 6697, 8321,...
8	9, 21, 45, 63, 65, 105, 117, 133, 153, 231, 273, 341, 481, 511, 561, 585, 645, 651, 861, 949, 1001, 1105, 1281, 1365, 1387, 1417, 1541, 1649, 1661, 1729, 1785, 1905, 2047, 2169, 2465, 2501, 2701, 2821, 3145, 3171, 3201, 3277, 3605, 3641, 4005, 4033, 4097, 4369, 4371, 4641, 4681, 4921, 5461, 5565, 5963, 6305, 6533, 6601, 6951, 7107, 7161, 7957, 8321, 8481, 8911, 9265, 9709, 9773, 9881, 9945,...
9	4, 8, 28, 52, 91, 121, 205, 286, 364, 511, 532, 616, 671, 697, 703, 946, 949, 1036, 1105, 1288, 1387, 1541, 1729, 1891, 2465, 2501, 2665, 2701, 2806, 2821, 2926, 3052, 3281, 3367, 3751, 4376, 4636, 4961, 5356, 5551, 6364, 6601, 6643, 7081, 7381, 7913, 8401, 8695, 8744, 8866, 8911,...
10	9, 33, 91, 99, 259, 451, 481, 561, 657, 703, 909, 1233, 1729, 2409, 2821, 2981, 3333, 3367, 4141, 4187, 4521, 5461, 6533, 6541, 6601, 7107, 7471, 7777, 8149, 8401, 8911,...
11	10, 15, 70, 133, 190, 259, 305, 481, 645, 703, 793, 1105, 1330, 1729, 2047, 2257, 2465, 2821, 4577, 4921, 5041, 5185, 6601, 7869, 8113, 8170, 8695, 8911, 9730,...
12	65, 91, 133, 143, 145, 247, 377, 385, 703, 1045, 1099, 1105, 1649, 1729, 1885, 1891, 2041, 2233, 2465, 2701, 2821, 2983, 3367, 3553, 5005, 5365, 5551, 5785, 6061, 6305, 6601, 8911, 9073,...
13	4, 6, 12, 21, 85, 105, 231, 244, 276, 357, 427, 561, 1099, 1785, 1891, 2465, 2806, 3605, 5028, 5149, 5185, 5565, 6601, 7107, 8841, 8911, 9577, 9637,...
14	15, 39, 65, 195, 481, 561, 781, 793, 841, 985, 1105, 1111, 1541, 1891, 2257, 2465, 2561, 2665, 2743, 3277, 5185, 5713, 6501, 6533, 6541, 7107, 7171, 7449, 7543, 7585, 8321, 9073,...
15	14, 341, 742, 946, 1477, 1541, 1687, 1729, 1891, 1921, 2821, 3133, 3277, 4187, 6541, 6601, 7471, 8701, 8911, 9073,...
16	15, 51, 85, 91, 255, 341, 435, 451, 561, 595, 645, 703, 1105, 1247, 1261, 1271, 1285, 1387, 1581, 1687, 1695, 1729, 1891, 1905, 2047, 2071, 2091, 2431, 2465, 2701, 2821, 3133, 3277, 3367, 3655, 3683, 4033, 4369, 4371, 4681, 4795, 4859, 5083, 5151, 5461, 5551, 6601, 6643, 7471, 7735, 7957, 8119, 8227, 8245, 8321, 8481, 8695, 8749, 8911, 9061, 9131, 9211, 9605, 9919,...
17	4, 8, 9, 16, 45, 91, 145, 261, 781, 1111, 1228, 1305, 1729, 1885, 2149, 2821, 3991, 4005, 4033, 4187, 4912, 5365, 5662, 5833, 6601, 6697, 7171, 8481, 8911,...
18	25, 49, 65, 85, 133, 221, 323, 325, 343, 425, 451, 637, 931, 1105, 1225, 1369, 1387, 1649, 1729, 1921, 2149, 2465, 2701, 2821, 2825, 2977, 3325, 4165, 4577, 4753, 5525, 5725, 5833, 5941, 6305, 6517, 6601, 7345, 8911, 9061,...
19	6, 9, 15, 18, 45, 49, 153, 169, 343, 561, 637, 889, 905, 906, 1035, 1105, 1629, 1661, 1849, 1891, 2353, 2465, 2701, 2821, 2955, 3201, 4033, 4681, 5461, 5466, 5713, 6223, 6541, 6601, 6697, 7957, 8145, 8281, 8401, 8869, 9211, 9997,...
20	21, 57, 133, 231, 399, 561, 671, 861, 889, 1281, 1653, 1729, 1891, 2059, 2413, 2501, 2761, 2821, 2947, 3059, 3201, 4047, 5271, 5461, 5473, 5713, 5833, 6601, 6817, 7999, 8421, 8911,...
21	4, 10, 20, 55, 65, 85, 221, 703, 793, 1045, 1105, 1852, 2035, 2465, 3781, 4630, 5185, 5473, 5995, 6541, 7363, 8695, 8965, 9061,...
22	21, 69, 91, 105, 161, 169, 345, 483, 485, 645, 805, 1105, 1183, 1247, 1261, 1541, 1649, 1729, 1891, 2037, 2041, 2047, 2413, 2465, 2737, 2821, 3241, 3605, 3801, 5551, 5565, 5963, 6019, 6601, 6693, 7081, 7107, 7267, 7665, 8119, 8365, 8421, 8911, 9453,...
23	22, 33, 91, 154, 165, 169, 265, 341, 385, 451, 481, 553, 561, 638, 946, 1027, 1045, 1065, 1105, 1183, 1271, 1729, 1738, 1749, 2059, 2321, 2465, 2501, 2701, 2821, 2926, 3097, 3445, 4033, 4081, 4345, 4371, 4681, 5005, 5149, 6253, 6369, 6533, 6541, 7189, 7267, 7957, 8321, 8365, 8651, 8745, 8911, 8965, 9805,...
24	25, 115, 175, 325, 553, 575, 805, 949, 1105, 1541, 1729, 1771, 1825, 1975, 2413, 2425, 2465, 2701, 2737, 2821, 2885, 3781, 4207, 4537, 6601, 6931, 6943, 7081, 7189, 7471, 7501, 7813, 8725, 8911, 9085, 9361, 9809,...
25	4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 28, 39, 66, 91, 124, 217, 232, 276, 403, 426, 451, 532, 561, 616, 703, 781, 804, 868, 946, 1128, 1288, 1541, 1729, 1891, 2047, 2701, 2806, 2821, 2911, 2926, 3052, 3126, 3367, 3592, 3976, 4069, 4123, 4207, 4564, 4636, 4686, 5321, 5461, 5551, 5611, 5662, 5731, 5963, 6601, 7449, 7588, 7813, 8029, 8646, 8911, 9881, 9976,...
26	9, 15, 25, 27, 45, 75, 133, 135, 153, 175, 217, 225, 259, 425, 475, 561, 589, 675, 703, 775, 925, 1035, 1065, 1147, 2465, 3145, 3325, 3385, 3565, 3825, 4123, 4525, 4741, 4921, 5041, 5425, 6093, 6475, 6525, 6601, 6697, 8029, 8695, 8911, 9073,...
27	26, 65, 91, 121, 133, 247, 259, 286, 341, 365, 481, 671, 703, 949, 1001, 1105, 1541, 1649, 1729, 1891, 2071, 2465, 2665, 2701, 2821, 2981, 2993, 3146, 3281, 3367, 3605, 3751, 4033, 4745, 4921, 4961, 5299, 5461, 5551, 5611, 5621, 6305, 6533, 6601, 7381, 7585, 7957, 8227, 8321, 8401, 8911, 9139, 9709, 9809, 9841, 9881, 9919,...
28	9, 27, 45, 87, 145, 261, 361, 529, 561, 703, 783, 785, 1105, 1305, 1413, 1431, 1885, 2041, 2413, 2465, 2871, 3201, 3277, 4553, 4699, 5149, 5181, 5365, 7065, 8149, 8321, 8401, 9841,...
29	4, 14, 15, 21, 28, 35, 52, 91, 105, 231, 268, 341, 364, 469, 481, 561, 651, 793, 871, 1105, 1729, 1876, 1897, 2105, 2257, 2821, 3484, 3523, 4069, 4371, 4411, 5149, 5185, 5356, 5473, 5565, 5611, 6097, 6601, 7161, 7294, 8321, 8401, 8421, 8841, 8911,...
30	49, 91, 133, 217, 247, 341, 403, 469, 493, 589, 637, 703, 871, 899, 901, 931, 1273, 1519, 1537, 1729, 2059, 2077, 2821, 3097, 3277, 3283, 3367, 3577, 4081, 4097, 4123, 5729, 6031, 6061, 6097, 6409, 6601, 6817, 7657, 8023, 8029, 8401, 8911, 9881,...

For more information, see to, and for all bases up to 150, see, this page does not define n is a pseudoprime to a base congruent to 1 or −1

Bases ''b'' for which ''n'' is a Fermat pseudoprime

If composite is even, then is a Fermat pseudoprime to the trivial base.
If composite is odd, then is a Fermat pseudoprime to the trivial bases.
For any composite, the number of distinct bases modulo, for which is a Fermat pseudoprime base, is
where are the distinct prime factors of. This includes the trivial bases.
For example, for, this product is. For, the smallest such nontrivial base is.
Every odd composite is a Fermat pseudoprime to at least two nontrivial bases modulo unless is a power of 3.
For composite n < 200, the following is a table of all bases b < n which n is a Fermat pseudoprime. If a composite number n is not in the table, then n is a pseudoprime only to the trivial base 1 modulo n.

n	bases 0 < b < n to which n is a Fermat pseudoprime	# of bases
9	1, 8	2
15	1, 4, 11, 14	4
21	1, 8, 13, 20	4
25	1, 7, 18, 24	4
27	1, 26	2
28	1, 9, 25	3
33	1, 10, 23, 32	4
35	1, 6, 29, 34	4
39	1, 14, 25, 38	4
45	1, 8, 17, 19, 26, 28, 37, 44	8
49	1, 18, 19, 30, 31, 48	6
51	1, 16, 35, 50	4
52	1, 9, 29	3
55	1, 21, 34, 54	4
57	1, 20, 37, 56	4
63	1, 8, 55, 62	4
65	1, 8, 12, 14, 18, 21, 27, 31, 34, 38, 44, 47, 51, 53, 57, 64	16
66	1, 25, 31, 37, 49	5
69	1, 22, 47, 68	4
70	1, 11, 51	3
75	1, 26, 49, 74	4
76	1, 45, 49	3
77	1, 34, 43, 76	4
81	1, 80	2
85	1, 4, 13, 16, 18, 21, 33, 38, 47, 52, 64, 67, 69, 72, 81, 84	16
87	1, 28, 59, 86	4
91	1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 36, 38, 40, 43, 48, 51, 53, 55, 61, 62, 64, 66, 68, 69, 74, 75, 79, 81, 82, 87, 88, 90	36
93	1, 32, 61, 92	4
95	1, 39, 56, 94	4
99	1, 10, 89, 98	4
105	1, 8, 13, 22, 29, 34, 41, 43, 62, 64, 71, 76, 83, 92, 97, 104	16
111	1, 38, 73, 110	4
112	1, 65, 81	3
115	1, 24, 91, 114	4
117	1, 8, 44, 53, 64, 73, 109, 116	8
119	1, 50, 69, 118	4
121	1, 3, 9, 27, 40, 81, 94, 112, 118, 120	10
123	1, 40, 83, 122	4
124	1, 5, 25	3
125	1, 57, 68, 124	4
129	1, 44, 85, 128	4
130	1, 61, 81	3
133	1, 8, 11, 12, 18, 20, 26, 27, 30, 31, 37, 39, 45, 46, 50, 58, 64, 65, 68, 69, 75, 83, 87, 88, 94, 96, 102, 103, 106, 107, 113, 115, 121, 122, 125, 132	36
135	1, 26, 109, 134	4
141	1, 46, 95, 140	4
143	1, 12, 131, 142	4
145	1, 12, 17, 28, 41, 46, 57, 59, 86, 88, 99, 104, 117, 128, 133, 144	16
147	1, 50, 97, 146	4
148	1, 121, 137	3
153	1, 8, 19, 26, 35, 53, 55, 64, 89, 98, 100, 118, 127, 134, 145, 152	16
154	1, 23, 67	3
155	1, 61, 94, 154	4
159	1, 52, 107, 158	4
161	1, 22, 139, 160	4
165	1, 23, 32, 34, 43, 56, 67, 76, 89, 98, 109, 122, 131, 133, 142, 164	16
169	1, 19, 22, 23, 70, 80, 89, 99, 146, 147, 150, 168	12
171	1, 37, 134, 170	4
172	1, 49, 165	3
175	1, 24, 26, 51, 74, 76, 99, 101, 124, 149, 151, 174	12
176	1, 49, 81, 97, 113	5
177	1, 58, 119, 176	4
183	1, 62, 121, 182	4
185	1, 6, 31, 36, 38, 43, 68, 73, 112, 117, 142, 147, 149, 154, 179, 184	16
186	1, 97, 109, 157, 163	5
187	1, 67, 120, 186	4
189	1, 55, 134, 188	4
190	1, 11, 61, 81, 101, 111, 121, 131, 161	9
195	1, 14, 64, 79, 116, 131, 181, 194	8
196	1, 165, 177	3

For more information, see b:de:Pseudoprimzahlen: Tabelle Pseudoprimzahlen (15 - 4999). Unlike the list above, that page excludes the bases 1 and n−1. When p is a prime, p² is a Fermat pseudoprime to base b if and only if p is a Wieferich prime to base b. For example, 1093² = 1194649 is a Fermat pseudoprime to base 2, and 11² = 121 is a Fermat pseudoprime to base 3.
The number of the values of b for n are
The least base b > 1 which n is a pseudoprime to base b are
The number of the values of b for a given n must divide [Euler phi function|], or = 1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 6, 4, 6, 4, 10, 4, 12, 6, 8, 8, 16, 6, 18, 8, 12, 10, 22, 8, 20, 12, 18, 12, 28, 8, 30, 16, 20, 16, 24, 12, 36, 18, 24, 16, 40, 12, 42, 20, 24, 22, 46, 16, 42, 20,... The quotient can be any natural number, and the quotient = 1 if and only if n is a prime or a Carmichael number
The least numbers which are pseudoprime to k values of b are

Weak pseudoprimes

A composite number n which satisfies is called a weak pseudoprime to base b. For any given base b, all Fermat pseudoprimes are weak pseudoprimes, and all weak pseudoprimes coprime to b are Fermat pseudoprimes. However, this definition also permits some pseudoprimes which are not coprime to b. For example, the smallest even weak pseudoprime to base 2 is 161038.
The least weak pseudoprime to bases b = 1, 2,... are:
Carmichael numbers are weak pseudoprimes to all bases, thus all terms in this list are less than or equal to the smallest Carmichael number, 561. Except for 561 = 3⋅11⋅17, only semiprimes can occur in the above sequence. Not all semiprimes less than 561 occur; a semiprime pq less than 561 occurs in the above sequences if and only if p − 1 divides q − 1. The least Fermat pseudoprime to base b is usually semiprime, but not always; the first counterexample is = 385 = 5 × 7 × 11.
If we require n > b, the least weak pseudoprimes are:

Euler–Jacobi pseudoprimes

Another approach is to use more refined notions of pseudoprimality, e.g. strong pseudoprimes or Euler–Jacobi pseudoprimes, for which there are no analogues of Carmichael numbers. This leads to probabilistic algorithms such as the Solovay–Strassen primality test, the Baillie–PSW primality test, and the Miller–Rabin primality test, which produce what are known as industrial-grade primes. Industrial-grade primes are integers for which primality has not been "certified", but have undergone a test such as the Miller–Rabin test which has nonzero, but arbitrarily low, probability of failure.

Applications

The rarity of such pseudoprimes has important practical implications. For example, public-key cryptography algorithms such as RSA require the ability to quickly find large primes. The usual algorithm to generate prime numbers is to generate random odd numbers and test them for primality. However, deterministic primality tests are slow. If the user is willing to tolerate an arbitrarily small chance that the number found is not a prime number but a pseudoprime, it is possible to use the much faster and simpler Fermat primality test.