European hare
The European hare, also known as the brown hare, is a species of hare native to Europe and parts of Asia. It is among the largest hare species and is adapted to temperate, open country. Hares are herbivorous and feed mainly on grasses and herbs, supplementing these with twigs, buds, bark and field crops, particularly in winter. Their natural predators include red foxes and large birds of prey. They rely on high-speed endurance running to escape predation, having long, powerful limbs and large nostrils.
Generally nocturnal and shy in nature, hares change their behaviour in the spring, when they can be seen in broad daylight chasing one another around in fields. During this spring frenzy they sometimes strike one another with their paws. This is not just competition between males: females may also hit males, either to show they are not ready to mate or to test the males' determination. The female nests in a depression on the surface of the ground known as a form rather than in a burrow, and the young are active as soon as they are born. Litters may consist of three or four young and a female can bear three litters a year, with hares living for up to twelve years. The breeding season lasts from January to August.
The European hare is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature because it has a wide range and is moderately abundant. However populations have been declining in mainland Europe since the 1960s, at least partly due to changes in farming practices. The hare has been hunted across Europe for centuries, with more than five million being shot each year; in Britain it has traditionally been hunted by beagling and hare coursing, but these field sports are now illegal. The hare is a traditional symbol of fertility and reproduction in some cultures and its courtship behaviour in the spring inspired the English idiom mad as a March hare.
Taxonomy and genetics
The European hare was first described in 1778 by German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas. It shares the genus Lepus with 32 other hare and jackrabbit species, jackrabbits being the name given to some species of hare native to North America. They are distinguished from other leporids by their longer legs and wider nostrils. The Corsican hare, broom hare and Granada hare were at one time considered to be subspecies of the European hare, but DNA sequencing and morphological analysis support their status as separate species.There is some debate as to whether the European hare and the Cape hare are the same species. A 2005 nuclear gene pool study suggested that they are, but a 2006 study of the mitochondrial DNA of these same animals concluded that they had diverged enough to be considered separate species. A 2008 study claims that in the case of Lepus species, with their rapid evolution, cannot be separated based on mtDNA alone but should also include data from the nuclear gene pool. It has been speculated that in the Near East, hare populations are interbreeding and experiencing gene flow. Despite this interbreeding, the Cape hare is still considered a distinct species, albeit one with controversial genetic relationships to other African hares. Leandro Iraçabal and colleagues conducted a study of several mitochondrial and nuclear genes across nearly all lagomorph species in 2024 that placed the Cape hare in a separate clade from the European hare, and indicated that the European hare's closest genetic relative was the Abyssinian hare found in the Horn of Africa:
Cladogenetic analysis suggests that European hares survived the last glacial period during the Pleistocene via refugia in southern Europe and Asia Minor. Subsequent colonisations of Central Europe appear to have been followed by human-caused environmental changes. A study of hares in the North Rhine-Westphalia region of Germany, found high genetic diversity with no signs of inbreeding. Gene flow appears tends to be carried more though males, but overall populations are split via maternal lines. It is however possible that restricted gene flow could reduce genetic diversity within populations that become isolated. The oldest fossil records of the European hare are found in Italy and Romania, and may date back ; this aligns with time estimates for the species' genetic divergence from its closest relative, the Abyssinian hare, in the late Pleistocene.
Historically, up to 30 subspecies of European hare have been described, although their status has been disputed. These subspecies have been distinguished by differences in pelage colour, body size and measurements, skull morphology and tooth shape.
Sixteen subspecies are listed in the IUCN red book, following Hoffmann and Smith :
Twenty-nine subspecies of "very variable status" are listed by Chapman and Flux in their book on lagomorphs, including the subspecies above and additionally:
Description
The European hare, like other members of the family Leporidae, is a fast-running terrestrial mammal. This species the largest of the hares native to Europe being long from head to body with tail and weighing. The hare's elongated ears range from from the notch to tip. It also has long hind feet that have a length of between. The dental formula is 2/1, 0/0, 3/2, 3/3.The European hare is slenderer than the European rabbit, and its dark limb musculature gives it great stamina when running at high speeds in open country. By contrast, cottontail rabbits are built for short sprints in more vegetated habitats. Other adaptions for endurance running include wider nostrils and larger hearts. In comparison to the European rabbit, the hare has a proportionally smaller stomach and caecum.
Grizzled yellow-brown fur covers the back and becomes rufous on the shoulders, legs, neck and throat and white on the underside and black on the tail and ear tips. The fur on the back is typically longer and more curled than on the rest of the body. The European hare's fur mostly remains the same throughout the year, although the sides of the head and base of the ears do develop white areas and the hip and rump region may gain some grey.
Distribution and habitat
The European hare is native to much of continental Europe, reaching as far north as 60N, and as far east as Central Asia. It has been extending its range into Siberia. It may have been introduced to Great Britain between 500 and 300 BCE. It has also been introduced, mostly as game animal, to North America in Ontario and New York State, and unsuccessfully in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, the Southern Cone in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Peru and the Falkland Islands, Australia, both islands of New Zealand, the south Pacific coast of Russia, and Ireland.The European hare primarily lives in open fields and shelter in scattered vegetation. It is a versatile species and thrives in mixed farmland. In its native steppe habitat, European hare populations are spread apart and average roughly 2 individuals per 100 hectares. Conversely, population densities of up to 275 hares per 100 hectares are seen in milder climates. According to a study in the Czech Republic, hares are most numerous at areas with below above sea level, and an average temperature throughout the year. With regards to climate, the European hare density was highest in "warm and dry districts with mild winters". In Poland, the European hare is most abundant in areas with few forest edges, perhaps because foxes can use these for cover. It requires cover, such as hedges, ditches and permanent cover areas, because these habitats supply the varied diet it requires, and are found at lower densities in large open fields. High cultivation results in greater mortality of young hares.
In Great Britain, the European hare is seen most frequently on arable farms, usually with crop rotation and fallow land, wheat and sugar beet crops. In mainly grass farms, its numbers increased with are improved pastures, some arable crops and patches of woodland. It is seen less frequently where foxes are abundant or where there are many common buzzards. They do not appear to directly compete with European rabbits. Although European hares are shot as game when plentiful, this is a self-limiting activity and is less likely to occur in localities where the species is scarce.
Behaviour and life history
The European hare is primarily nocturnal and spends a third of its activity foraging. During daytime, it hides in a depression in the ground called a "form" where it is partially hidden. It can run at, and when confronted by predators it relies on outrunning them in the open. It is generally thought of as asocial but can be seen in both large and small groups. It does not appear to be territorial, living in overlapping home ranges of around. Communication between hares is by a variety of visual signals. Interest is shown by raising ears, while lowering ears warns others to keep away. When challenging another individual, a hare thumps its front feet; the hind feet are used to warn others of a predator. It squeals when hurt or scared, and a female makes "guttural" calls to attract her young. A hare can live 8–13 years.Food and foraging
The European hare is primarily herbivorous and forages for wild grasses and weeds. With the intensification of agriculture, it has taken to feeding on crops when preferred foods are not available. During the spring and summer, it feeds on soy, clover and corn poppy as well as grasses and herbs. During autumn and winter, it primarily chooses winter wheat, and is also lured by hunters with piles of sugar beet and carrots. It also eats woody material from shrubs and young fruit trees during winter. It avoids cereal crops when other more attractive foods are available, and appears to prefer high energy fats and proteins over dietary fiber. When eating twigs, it strips off the bark to feed on the vascular tissues for their soluble carbohydrates. Compared to the European rabbit, food passes through the gut more rapidly in the European hare, although digestion rates are similar. It is sometimes eats its own faeces to recover undigested proteins and vitamins. The consumation rate of two or three hares can equal that of a single sheep.European hares forage in groups. Group feeding is beneficial as individuals can spend more time feeding knowing that other hares are being vigilant. Nevertheless, the distribution of food affects these benefits. When food is well-spaced, all hares are able to access it. When food is more concentrated, only dominant hares can access it. In small gatherings, dominants are more successful in defending food, but as more individuals join in, they must spend more time driving off others. The larger the group, the less time dominant individuals have in which to eat. Meanwhile, the subordinates can access the food while the dominants are distracted. As such, when in groups, all individuals fare worse the more concentrated the food is.