History of the English monarchy
The history of the English monarchy covers the reigns of English kings and queens from the 9th century to 1707. The English monarchy traces its origins to the petty kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, which consolidated into the Kingdom of England by the 10th century. Anglo-Saxon England had an elective monarchy, but this was replaced by primogeniture after the Norman Conquest in 1066. The Norman and Plantagenet dynasties expanded their authority throughout the British Isles, creating the Lordship of Ireland in 1177 and conquering Wales in 1283.
The monarchy's gradual evolution into a constitutional and ceremonial monarchy is a major theme in the historical development of the British constitution. In 1215, King John agreed to limit his own powers over his subjects according to the terms of Magna Carta. To gain the consent of the political community, English kings began summoning Parliaments to approve taxation and to enact statutes. Gradually, Parliament's authority expanded at the expense of royal power.
The Crown of Ireland Act 1542 granted English monarchs the title King of Ireland. In 1603, the childless Elizabeth I was succeeded by James VI of Scotland, known as James I in England. Under the Union of the Crowns, England and the Kingdom of Scotland were ruled by a single sovereign while remaining separate nations. For the history of the British monarchy after 1603, see History of the monarchy of the United Kingdom.
Anglo-Saxons (800s–1066)
Anglo-Saxon government
The origins of the English monarchy lie in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 7th century, the Anglo-Saxons consolidated into seven kingdoms known as the Heptarchy. At certain times, one king was strong enough to claim the title bretwalda. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the kings of Wessex united the separate kingdoms into a single Kingdom of England.In theory, all governing authority resided with the king. He alone could make Anglo-Saxon law, mint coins, levy taxes, raise the fyrd, or make foreign policy. In reality, kings needed the support of the English church and the nobility to rule. A monarch's rule was not legitimate unless he received coronation by the church. Coronation consecrated a king, giving him priest-like qualities and divine protection. The coronation of Edgar the Peaceful served as a model for future British coronations.
The king governed in consultation with the witan, the council of bishops, ealdormen, and thegns he chose to advise him. The witan also elected new kings from among male royal family members. Primogeniture was not the definitive rule governing succession, so strong candidates replaced weak ones.
While the capital was at Winchester, the king traveled with his itinerant court from one royal vill to another as they collected food rent and heard petitions. The king's income came from revenue from the royal demesne, judicial fines, and taxation of trade. The geld was also an essential source of revenue.
House of Wessex
After 865, Viking invaders conquered all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms except for Wessex, which survived due to the leadership of Alfred the Great. Alfred absorbed Kent and western Mercia and was the first to style himself "king of the Anglo-Saxons". Alfred's son, Edward the Elder, continued to recover and consolidate control over the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Only the Kingdom of York and Northumbria remained in Viking hands at his death. Edward's sons completed the reconquest of these holdouts.Edward's son Æthelstan first used the title "king of the English" and is considered the founder of the English monarchy. He died childless, and his younger half-brother Edmund I succeeded him. After Edmund's murder, his two young sons were passed over in favor of their uncle, Eadred. He never married and raised his nephews as his heirs. The eldest, Eadwig, succeeded his uncle, but the younger brother Edgar was soon declared king of Mercia and the Danelaw. Eadwig's death prevented civil war, and Edgar the Peaceful became the undisputed king of all England in 959.
Edgar was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward the Martyr. His younger brother, Æthelred the Unready, had him murdered and then became king. The Danes began raiding England in the 990s, and Æthelred resorted to buying them off with ever more expensive payments of Danegeld. Æthelred's marriage to Emma of Normandy deprived the Danes of a place to shelter before crossing the Channel. Still, it did not prevent Swein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, from conquering England in 1013.
After Swein died in 1014, the English invited Æthelred to return from exile if he agreed to address complaints against his earlier rule, including high taxes, extortion, and the enslavement of free men. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records this agreement, which historian David Starkey called "the first constitutional settlement in English history". Æthelred died in 1016, and his son Edmund Ironside became king. Swein's son Cnut invaded England and defeated Edmund at the Battle of Assandun. Afterward, the two divided England, with Edmund ruling Wessex and Cnut taking the rest.
Cnut the Great and his sons
After Ironside's death, Cnut became king of all England and quickly married Æthelred's widow, Emma of Normandy. Cnut united England with the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway in what historians call the North Sea Empire. Because Cnut was not in England for much of his reign, he divided England into four parts. He appointed trusted earls to rule each region. The creation of large earldoms covering multiple shires necessitated the office of sheriff or "shire reeve". The sheriff was the king's direct representative in the shire. He oversaw the shire court and collected taxes and royal estate dues.Earl Godwin of Wessex was the strongest earl and Cnut's chief minister. When Cnut died in 1035, rival sons contended for the throne: Emma's son Harthacnut and Ælfgifu's son Harold Harefoot. Godwin supported Harthacnut, but Leofric, earl of Mercia, backed Harold. In a compromise, Harold became king of Mercia and Northumbria, while Harthacnut became king of Wessex. Harold died in 1040, and Harthacnut ruled a reunited England until he died in 1042.
Some members of the House of Wessex saw Cnut's death as a chance to regain power. Æthelred's youngest son, Alfred Aetheling, returned to England but was captured, blinded, and died of his injuries in 1037.
Edward the Confessor
Edward the Confessor was the only surviving son of Æthelred and Emma. In 1041, Harthacnut recalled his half-brother from exile in Normandy. When he died without heirs, the forty-year-old Edward was the natural successor. He had spent most of his life in Normandy and was "probably more French than English" culturally.As king, Edward invited his nephew, Edward the Exile, to return to England. Edward died before reaching England, but his son Edgar Ætheling and daughter Margaret were able to return. Margaret would marry Malcolm III of Scotland.
By this time, the Anglo-Saxon government had become sophisticated. Edward appointed the first chancellor, Regenbald, who kept the king's seal and oversaw the writing of charters and writs. The treasury had developed into a permanent institution by this time as well. London was becoming the political and commercial capital of England. Edward furthered this transition by building Westminster Palace and Westminster Abbey.
Despite his government's sophistication, Edward had much less land and wealth than Earl Godwin and his sons. In 1066, the Godwinson estates were worth £7,000, while the king's estates were worth £5,000. To counter the power of the Godwinsons, Edward created a French party loyal to him. He made his nephew, Ralph of Mantes, the earl of Hereford. He overturned the election of a Godwin relative to be Archbishop of Canterbury and appointed Robert of Jumièges instead. In 1051, Edward's brother-in-law, Count Eustace of Boulogne, visited England and initiated a quarrel with Godwin. Ultimately, Edward had the entire Godwinson family outlawed and forced into exile.
Around this time, Edward invited his relative William, Duke of Normandy, to England. According to Norman sources, the king nominated William as his heir. However, Edward's favouritism towards the French was unpopular with the English people. With popular support, Godwin returned to England in 1052. Edward had to restore the Godwinsons to their former lands. This time, Edward's French supporters were outlawed.
Harold Godwinson
The childless Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066. His fifteen-year-old great-nephew, Edgar Ætheling, had the strongest claim to the throne. Nevertheless, Harold Godwinson, earl of Wessex and leader of the powerful Godwin family, claimed Edward promised him the throne. Popular with the people and the Witan, Harold was quickly crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 January, the same day and place Edward was buried.William of Normandy disputed Harold's succession. William was the great-nephew of Emma of Normandy, wife of two English kings. He married Matilda of Flanders, a direct descendant of Alfred the Great. William claimed he was Edward's designated heir and prepared to invade England with the blessing of Pope Alexander II. Before William reached England, King Harald Hardrada of Norway invaded with Tostig Godwinson, the exiled brother of Harold Godwinson. Harold defeated Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066.
Meanwhile, William landed in England on 28 September. He fought Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October. It was a disaster for the English. Harold and his brothers Gyrth, the earl of East Anglia, and Leofwine, the earl of Kent, were killed. Ealdred, archbishop of York, nominated Edgar Ætheling to be king, and this was supported by the leaders of London and the earls Morcar and Edwin.
Edgar was never crowned, and English resistance soon collapsed. Edgar and the English leadership submitted to William, and the Norman conqueror was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 at Westminster Abbey.