List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

The emperors of the Ming dynasty ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China. Members of the Ming dynasty continued to rule a series of rump states in southern China, commonly known as the Southern Ming, until 1662; the Ming dynasty succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu-led Qing dynasty.
The Ming dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor. All Ming emperors were of the House of Zhu. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor, who ruled for 48 years; the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.
The emperor of the Ming dynasty, following a practice established in the Zhou dynasty, was known as the "Son of Heaven". He was viewed as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire. In addition, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire. During audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him, although the majority of decisions were actually made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries. When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.
The majority of the Ming emperors resided in the Forbidden City, a complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to the Yongle Emperor, who moved the capital in 1420, the emperor's residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.

Background

The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and forced the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Great Ming and declared himself its first emperor.
The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the heir to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. Sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. Conservative officials strongly insisted on following this strict rule throughout the Ming era. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as his heir, was eventually forced to give in and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor. The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.
File:Jiajing Emperor on his state barge.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Wanli Emperor on his state barge as depicted in the Return Clearing. Imperial journeys were used to impress the population with the emperor's power and wealth, and he travelled in luxury with a vast entourage. Journeys by water provided a useful opportunity for inspecting the upkeep of the all-important water-transport system and the maintenance of irrigation works and dykes.|alt=Return Clearing Imperial Procession Returning to the Palace. Anonymous, Ming dynasty
The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dated back to the Qin dynasty and was continued by the Ming dynasty. In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges. As the dynasty progressed, the successors of the Hongwu Emperor lacked his decisiveness and were constrained by traditional limitations. The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country. Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters. Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates. Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.
During the reigns of the Hongwu Emperor and his successors, China generally experienced a period of economic growth and political stability. In the 17th century, a combination of climate changes and poor economic policies led to widespread famines and epidemics. As a result, the government's authority weakened, and numerous uprisings erupted. In 1644, the rebel army successfully captured Beijing, leading to the suicide of the last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor. The leader of the uprising, Li Zicheng, declared himself the emperor of the new Shun dynasty. To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.
Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last emperor, the Yongli Emperor, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.

List of emperors

The emperor's personal name was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. He was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty, His Majesty the Emperor. After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name, usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters. Another name given posthumously was the temple name which, along with the posthumous name, was used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple. Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".
Era name, or "reign title", was chosen at the beginning of the emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time. During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, the emperors of the Ming dynasty were commonly referred to by their single era names.

Sovereign	Portrait	Personal name	Reign	Succession	Life details
Hongwu Emperor		Zhu Yuanzhang ----	23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398	Born into poverty, he led the Red Turban Rebellions to establish the Ming dynasty	21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398 ----Initiated cultural reconstruction and political reform, also noted for his extreme and violent methods of enforcement. Died of natural causes.
Jianwen Emperor		Zhu Yunwen ----	30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402	Grandson of the Hongwu Emperor	5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402 ----Overthrown by the future Yongle Emperor, his uncle. Either died in or disappeared after fires in the Ming Palace.
Yongle Emperor		Zhu Di ----	17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424	Son of the Hongwu Emperor	2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424 ----Raised the Ming to its highest power. Launched five military campaigns against the Mongols, reestablished Chinese rule in Vietnam, and moved the capital to Beijing. Patron of many projects, including the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, Yongle Encyclopedia and Ming treasure voyages. Died of natural causes.
Hongxi Emperor		Zhu Gaochi ----	12 August 1424 – 29 May 1425	Son of the Yongle Emperor	16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425 ----Focused primarily on domestic affairs. Died of natural causes.
Xuande Emperor		Zhu Zhanji ----	29 May 1425 – 31 January 1435	Son of the Hongxi Emperor	16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435 ----Stabilized the socio-economics and politics, commissioned the seventh and last Ming treasure voyage, but failed to resolve problems within the military and allowed the influence of eunuchs to grow. Also a noted painter. Died of natural causes.
Emperor Yingzong		Zhu Qizhen ----	31 January 1435 – 22 September 1449	Son of the Xuande Emperor	29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 ----First child emperor. His reign was dominated by eunuchs, particularly Wang Zhen, which led to growing instability. Captured by the Oirat Mongols during the Tumu Crisis.
Jingtai Emperor		Zhu Qiyu ----	22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457	Son of the Xuande Emperor	11 September 1428 – 14 March 1457 ----Assumed power while his brother was held captive, successfully defended Beijing, and restored the empire's strength, but was later deposed in a palace coup. Died a month later, possibly from murder.
Emperor Yingzong		Zhu Qizhen	11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464	Son of the Xuande Emperor	29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 ----Restored to power after his release. Suppressed the Rebellion of Cao Qin and abolished the practice of concubine sacrifice. Died of natural causes.
Chenghua Emperor		Zhu Jianshen ----	23 February 1464 – 9 September 1487	Son of Emperor Yingzong	9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487 ----His reign was marked by military victories and liberal political policies but was spent mostly under the power of eunuchs and his favorite concubine, Lady Wan. Died of natural causes.
Hongzhi Emperor		Zhu Youcheng ----	9 September 1487 – 8 June 1505	Son of the Chenghua Emperor	30 July 1470 – 9 June 1505 ----Initiated the. Died of natural causes.
Zhengde Emperor		Zhu Houzhao ----	9 June 1505 – 20 April 1521	Son of the Hongzhi Emperor	14 November 1491 – 20 April 1521 ----His reign saw the rise of influence from eunuchs, particularly Liu Jin. Probably drowned after his boat sank.
Jiajing Emperor		Zhu Houcong ----	27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567	Grandson of the Chenghua Emperor, cousin of the Zhengde Emperor	16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567 ----The only Ming emperor to follow Taoism. Died after a period of prolonged illness, possibly due to alchemical elixir poisoning.
Longqing Emperor		Zhu Zaiji ----	23 January 1567 – 5 July 1572	Son of the Jiajing Emperor	4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572 ----Peace with the Mongols, opening the borders, stabilized the socio-economic situation but indulged in lust and a lavish lifestyle. Died of natural causes.
Wanli Emperor		Zhu Yijun ----	5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620	Son of the Longqing Emperor	4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620 ----Longest reigning Ming emperor. Despite early successes, the gradual decline of Ming began towards the end of his reign. Died of natural causes.
Taichang Emperor		Zhu Changluo ----	28 August – 26 September 1620	Son of the Wanli Emperor	28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620 ----Died suddenly after a reign of around a month, possibly murdered by poison.
Tianqi Emperor		Zhu Youjiao ----	26 September 1620 – 30 September 1627	Son of the Taichang Emperor	23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627 ----His reign was dominated by the eunuch Wei Zhongxian. Died from an unknown illness.
Chongzhen Emperor		Zhu Youjian ----	2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644	Son of the Taichang Emperor, brother of the Tianqi Emperor	6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644 ----Attempted to revive the dynasty but failed to resolve problems in the Ming administration, unable to suppress peasant rebellions and defend against the Manchu invasions. Committed suicide, possibly by hanging himself on a tree, during the fall of Beijing to rebel forces of Li Zicheng.

Sovereign	Personal name	Reign	Succession	Life details
Hongguang Emperor	Zhu Yousong ----	19 June 1644 – 15 June 1645	Grandson of the Wanli Emperor	5 September 1607 – 23 May 1646 ----His reign was plagued by political struggles. Executed by the Qing dynasty.
	Zhu Changfang	1 July – 6 July 1645	Grandson of the Longqing Emperor	1608 – 23 May 1646 ----Surrendered to the Qing dynasty, later executed.
Longwu Emperor	Zhu Yujian ----	18 August 1645 – 6 October 1646	Son of Zhu Qisheng, a descendant of the first Ming emperor	25 May 1602 – 6 October 1646 ----Made utmost efforts to restore the Ming regime but was betrayed by his strongest supporter, Zheng Zhilong. Captured and killed by Qing forces.
Shaowu Emperor	Zhu Yuyue	11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647	Son of Zhu Qisheng, a descendant of the first Ming emperor, and younger brother of the Longwu Emperor	1605 – 20 January 1647 ----Committed suicide after being captured by Qing forces.
	Zhu Yihai	7 September 1645 – 1653	Son of Zhu Shouyong, a descendant of the first Ming emperor	6 July 1618 – 23 December 1662 ----Died of natural causes.
Yongli Emperor	Zhu Youlang ----	24 December 1646 – 1 June 1662	Son of Zhu Changying and grandson of the Wanli Emperor	1 November 1623 – 1 June 1662 ----Captured and killed by Qing forces.