Biome
A biome is a distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, animal life, and an ecosystem. It consists of a biological community that has formed in response to its physical environment and regional climate. In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem. The International Biological Program projects popularized the concept of biome.
However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope, while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome".
In the Brazilian literature, the term biome is sometimes used as a synonym of biogeographic province, an area based on species composition, or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both include many biomes in fact.
Classifications
To divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them.A 1978 study on North American grasslands found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr. The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production, and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit. These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme, which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created.
Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones
In 1947, the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are clearly visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important.Allee (1949) biome-types
The principal biome-types by Allee :- Tundra
- Taiga
- Deciduous forest
- Grasslands
- Desert
- High plateaus
- Tropical forest
- Minor terrestrial biomes
Kendeigh (1961) biomes
- Terrestrial
- * Temperate [deciduous forest]
- * Coniferous forest
- * Woodland
- * Chaparral
- * Tundra
- * Grassland
- * Desert
- * Tropical savanna
- * Tropical forest
- Marine
- * Oceanic plankton and nekton
- * Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte
- * Pelecypod-annelid
- * Coral reef
Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types
Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He had previously compiled a review of biome classifications.
Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme
- Physiognomy: sometimes referring to the plants' appearance; or the biome's apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species – including plants.
- Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities.
- Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.
- Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by physiognomy.
- Formation-type: a grouping of convergent formations.
Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types
Whittaker used what he called "gradient analysis" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.- Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide
- Climatic moisture gradient
- Temperature gradient by altitude
- Temperature gradient by latitude
- The gradient runs from favorable to the extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.
- Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists.
- Trends in the diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments.
- Each growth-form has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines.
- The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world.
Biome-types
- Tropical rainforest
- Tropical seasonal rainforest
- * deciduous
- * semideciduous
- Temperate giant rainforest
- Montane rainforest
- Temperate deciduous forest
- Temperate evergreen forest
- * needleleaf
- * sclerophyll
- Subarctic-subalpine needle-leaved forests
- Elfin woodland
- Thorn forest
- Thorn scrub
- Temperate woodland
- Temperate shrublands
- * deciduous
- * heath
- * sclerophyll
- * subalpine-needleleaf
- * subalpine-broadleaf
- Savanna
- Temperate grassland
- Alpine grasslands
- Tundra
- Tropical desert
- Warm-temperate desert
- Cool temperate desert scrub
- Arctic-alpine desert
- Bog
- Tropical fresh-water swamp forest
- Temperate fresh-water swamp forest
- Mangrove swamp
- Salt marsh
- Wetland
Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types
Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes
The eponymously named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the important climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.| Number | Zonobiome | Zonal soil type | Zonal vegetation type |
| ZB I | Equatorial, always moist, little temperature seasonality | Equatorial brown clays | Evergreen tropical rainforest |
| ZB II | Tropical, summer rainy season and cooler "winter" dry season | Red clays or red earths | Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry forest, scrub, or savanna |
| ZB III | Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid climate | Serosemes, sierozemes | Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface |
| ZB IV | Mediterranean, winter rainy season and summer drought | Mediterranean brown earths | Sclerophyllous, frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands |
| ZB V | Warm temperate, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum | Yellow or red forest soils, slightly podsolic soils | Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive |
| ZB VI | Nemoral, moderate climate with winter freezing | Forest brown earths and grey forest soils | Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest |
| ZB VII | Continental, arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters | Chernozems to serozems | Grasslands and temperate deserts |
| ZB VIII | Boreal, cold temperate with cool summers and long winters | Podsols | Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest |
| ZB IX | Polar, short, cool summers and long, cold winters | Tundra humus soils with solifluction | Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils |
Schultz (1988) eco-zones
Schultz defined nine ecozones :- polar/subpolar zone
- boreal zone
- humid mid-latitudes
- dry mid-latitudes
- subtropics with winter rain
- subtropics with year-round rain
- dry tropics and subtropics
- tropics with summer rain
- tropics with year-round rain
Bailey (1989) ecoregions
- 100 Polar Domain
- * 120 Tundra Division
- * M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces
- * 130 Subarctic Division
- * M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces
- 200 Humid Temperate Domain
- * 210 Warm Continental Division
- * M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
- * 220 Hot Continental Division
- * M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
- * 230 Subtropical Division
- * M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces
- * 240 Marine Division
- * M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces
- * 250 Prairie Division
- * 260 Mediterranean Division
- * M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces
- 300 Dry Domain
- * 310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division
- * M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces
- * 320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division
- * 330 Temperate Steppe Division
- * 340 Temperate Desert Division
- 400 Humid Tropical Domain
- * 410 Savanna Division
- * 420 Rainforest Division
Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200
This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation.
For the terrestrial ecoregions, there is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN.
[Biogeographic realm]s (terrestrial and freshwater)
- NA: Nearctic
- PA: Palearctic
- AT: Afrotropic
- IM: Indomalaya
- AA: Australasia
- NT: Neotropic
- OC: Oceania
- AN: Antarctic
Biogeographic realms (marine">Marine ecoregion">marine)
- Arctic
- Temperate Northern Atlantic
- Temperate Northern Pacific
- Tropical Atlantic
- Western Indo-Pacific
- Central Indo-Pacific
- Eastern Indo-Pacific
- Tropical Eastern Pacific
- Temperate South America
- Temperate Southern Africa
- Temperate Australasia
- Southern Ocean
Biomes (terrestrial)
- Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
- Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
- Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
- Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
- Temperate coniferous forests
- Boreal forests/taiga
- Tropical and subtropical [grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]
- Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
- Flooded grasslands and savannas
- Montane grasslands and shrublands
- Tundra
- Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests
- Deserts and xeric shrublands
- Mangrove
Biomes (freshwater)
- Large lakes
- Large river deltas
- Polar freshwaters
- Montane freshwaters
- Temperate coastal rivers
- Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands
- Temperate upland rivers
- Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers
- Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands
- Tropical and subtropical upland rivers
- Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins
- Oceanic islands
Biomes (marine)
- Polar
- Temperate shelves and sea
- Temperate upwelling
- Tropical upwelling
- Tropical coral
Summary of the scheme
- Biosphere
- * Biogeographic realms
- ** Ecoregions, each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type
- *** Ecosystems
- Biosphere
- * Biogeographic realms
- ** Ecoregions, each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type
- *** Ecosystems
- Biosphere
- * Biogeographic realms
- **
- *** Ecoregions, each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type
- **** Ecosystems
- Biosphere
- * Biogeographic realm: Palearctic
- ** Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests ; biome type: temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
- *** Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100 and 1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral zone
- **** Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk.
- ***** Plant: Silver fir
Other biomes
Marine biomes
Pruvot zones or "systems":Longhurst biomes:
- Coastal
- Polar
- Trade wind
- Westerly
- Open sea
- Deep sea
- Hydrothermal vents
- Cold seeps
- Benthic zone
- Pelagic zone
- Abyssal
- Hadal
- Littoral/Intertidal zone
- Salt marsh
- Estuaries
- Coastal lagoons/Atoll lagoons
- Kelp forest
- Pack ice
Anthropogenic biomes
Major anthropogenic biomes:
Endolithic biomes
The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes.Effects of climate change
Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth's biomes. Meaning, biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk of becoming new biomes entirely. More specifically, between 54% and 22% of global land area will experience climates that correspond to other biomes. 3.6% of land area will experience climates that are completely new or unusual. An example of a biome shift is woody plant encroachment, which can change grass savanna into shrub savanna.Average temperatures have risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous biomes, which leads to the conclusion that arctic and mountainous biomes are currently the most vulnerable to climate change. South American terrestrial biomes have been predicted to go through the same temperature trends as arctic and mountainous biomes. With its annual average temperature continuing to increase, the moisture currently located in forest biomes will dry up.