Deng Yingchao
Deng Yingchao was a prominent Chinese revolutionary, politician, and women's rights advocate who played a significant role in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) for over six decades. She served as Chairwoman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference from 1983 to 1988 and was the wife of Zhou Enlai, the first Premier of the People's Republic of China.
Born in Guangxi in 1904, Deng emerged as a pioneering feminist leader in Tianjin around the 1920s, where she founded women's organizations and publications advocating for education, employment rights, and opposition to arranged marriage and foot-binding. After joining the Chinese Communist Party and marrying Zhou Enlai in 1925, she experienced the Long March and remained active in Party efforts through the Second Sino-Japanese War. Following the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, she held influential positions and played key roles in drafting China's Marriage Law, promoting women's participation in land reform, and advocating birth control policies. In the Reform Era, she was appointed to the CCP Politburo and led international activities until her health declined in the late 1980s.
Early life and education
Deng Yingchao was born on 4 February 1904 as Deng Yu’ai in Nanning, Guangxi, with ancestral roots in Guangshan County, Henan. Her father, Deng Tingzhong, practiced martial arts from an early age and later passed the imperial military examination, after which he was appointed as a garrison commander in Nanning. Her mother, Yang Zhende, was born into a wealthy family in Changsha, Hunan, and was literate and educated in Traditional Chinese medicine. Following her family’s decline, Yang married Deng Tingzhong.Influenced by feudal patriarchal values, Deng Tingzhong preferred sons over daughters. Upon Deng Yingchao’s birth, he intended to give her away, but Yang resisted desperately, even threatening her own life, to keep and raise the child. Deng Tingzhong showed little affection toward his daughter growing up.
Although her husband’s position could have provided a comfortable life, Yang chose to live independently and supported herself by practicing medicine and teaching at an elementary school rather than by relying on him. When Deng Yingchao was about three years old, her father was exiled to Xinjiang, placing the financial burden entirely on her mother. As the family of a convicted official, Yang was no longer permitted to practice medicine in Nanning, so she decided to leave the city. To make a living and support the family, the mother and daughter moved from place to place, living successively in several cities including Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Tianjin. Despite living in poverty, these experiences broadened Deng’s horizons and enriched her knowledge. Her mother taught her to read and traditional Chinese culture and opposed foot-binding for her daughter. At the age of seven, Deng began learning weaving and knitting to earn money. Around that time, her father died in Xinjiang.
Education
In 1913, nine-year-old Deng began attending school when she and her mother moved to Beijing after Yang obtained a teaching position. Her mother gave her the formal name Deng Wenshu for school. Yang actively read progressive articles and books, engaging with ideas of freedom and equality, which deeply influenced her daughter. In 1916, Deng entered the Zhili First Women’s Normal School with full scholarship, where she received a comprehensive education in various subjects. She was reported to have been among the top five students in her school.Early advocacy efforts
In 1919, at the age of fifteen, Deng participated as a team leader in the May Fourth Movement, where she met Zhou Enlai, whom she would marry in 1925 and who would later become the Premier of China. During the May Fourth Movement, Deng held a pessimistic view of marriage, believing that a woman's life effectively ended when she married.Also in 1919, Deng Yingchao helped establish the Tianjin Women Patriots’ Association, which called on women to step beyond the boundaries of the household and societal expectations to participate in the "patriotic movement". As the head of its lecture group, she delivered speeches that initially appealed to women’s patriotism and later expanded to advocate women’s education, employment, independence, opposition to feudal marriage, and the abolition of foot-binding.
In 1922, Deng organized and led the Tianjin Women’s Rights Alliance. In 1923, she founded the semimonthly journal Women’s Star and established the Women’s Star Society, where she served as a leading organizer and editor. The journal focused on exposing the oppression of women and promoting women’s rights. That same year, she also co-founded the Tianjin Women’s Star Supplementary School, which aimed to help unemployed women gain basic education and vocational skills for self-support. In 1924, Deng participated in founding the Women’s Daily and later became its chief editor and general manager. It was the only women’s newspaper in China at the time and sought to reform women’s thinking nationwide. The same year, she organized the Women’s Star Sunday Volunteer School, which provided one-year, tuition-free education for lower- and middle-class women. On June 7, 1925, Deng helped establish the Tianjin Women’s Federation.
Political career
Chinese Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War
Deng was one of the few women to survive the Long March, a military retreat by the Chinese Communist Party to their new headquarters in Yan'an, Shaanxi between 1934 and 1935. However, during the Long March she developed pulmonary tuberculosis.After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Deng Yingchao met with women leaders from areas under Kuomintang rule and called for the creation of a women’s movement to support the national resistance against Japan. She urged women across the country, regardless of party or organizational affiliation, to put aside political disagreements and work together to defend the nation from the Japanese. In August 1937, the Second United Front between the CCP and KMT was established. In December 1937, Deng Yingchao helped organize the formation of a women’s committee in the Second United Front.
In 1938, she promoted the establishment of the Chinese Wartime Child Care Association. She also gave many speeches and published articles that outlined the main goals of the women’s movement, calling on rural women to take part in the war effort such as through spring plowing to ensure adequate food supply or assisting in caring for the wounded.
After the victory of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Deng Yingchao served as the only female member of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference between 1945 and 1948, a conference intended for post-war reforms involving the CCP and KMT.
People's Republic of China
Great Leap ForwardIn 1961, when Deng Yingchao, as member of the CCP politburo, and Zhou Enlai, as China Premier, conducted an investigation on the living conditions in rural Handan, Hebei, several people complained about the lack of food as a result of the Great Leap Forward. In response, they ordered that those people get "food provisions".
Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)
During the Cultural Revolution, Deng Yingchao had a less visible public profile, limiting her public appearances to receiving foreign leaders during diplomatic trips. She did this to avoid being swept up by the political turmoil caused by her husband's central role in the Revolution. Her private profile earned her praise from CCP members who saw her as "always modest and selfless".Reform Era (1978-1992)
In March 1978, after being re-elected as the vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the Fifth National People's Congress, Deng Yingchao served as the second secretary of the newly restored CCP Central Commission for Disciplinary Inspection at the third plenary session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.With the introduction of the Reform Era, spouses of prominent leaders were removed from the top decision-making bodies. Nevertheless, Deng Yingchao was co-opted as a member of the CCP's Politburo under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, in part because she was Zhou Enlai's widow, who died on January 8, 1976. Soon thereafter, Deng Yingchao used her early contacts with the Kuomintang, as well as her network and reputation in the Second United Front, to lead the newly established Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs. From June 1983 to March 1988, she served as Chairwoman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.
In September 1985, Deng Yingchao voluntarily applied for resignation as a member of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. In April 1988, after the expiration of the chairmanship term of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, she resigned.
Tiananmen Square Protests (1989)
After a month of 1989 [Tiananmen Square protests and massacre|protest] against corruption and democratic reforms that started in April 1989, the Chinese government declared martial law on 20 May. On the third day under martial law, Deng Yingchao addressed a letter to student protestors in Beijing. In the letter published in the People's Daily, she implored the protestors to stop the protest and resume classes. However, when students continued protesting despite the imposition of martial law, Deng advised senior CCP leaders to show restraint. Specifically, she advocated for a "moderate approach" which included convincing students to end their protest.Despite her advice, on 4 June 1989, the People's Liberation Army was deployed to clear Tiananmen Square. Even though it cannot be confirmed if Deng agreed to the deploying of the PLA, she nevertheless publicly endorsed Deng Xiaoping's decision on 19 June.
International and diplomatic activities
In September 1939, due to Zhou Enlai’s illness, Deng Yingchao accompanied him to the Soviet Union for medical treatment. During this period, she gained insights into the status and living conditions of Soviet women. After returning to China in 1940, she wrote several articles for the magazine Women’s Lives, introducing and publicizing the achievements of the Soviet Union and the lives of Soviet women and children, with the aim of inspiring morale and confidence among Chinese women during the War of Resistance against Japan.In 1946, Deng traveled to Paris to attend a council meeting of the Women’s International Democratic Federation. She was then elected to serve on the Executive Council of the WIDF in 1948 and 1953. In 1949, when the Asian Women’s Representative Conference was held in Beijing, Deng served as the head of the Chinese delegation and delivered a report titled “Asian Women’s Struggle for National Independence, People’s Democracy, and World Peace”.
During the Cultural Revolution between 1966 to 1976, Deng met with women’s delegations from North Korea, Syria, the United States, and France, introducing them to the achievements and experiences of the Chinese women’s movement. In February 1972, during U.S. President Richard Nixon’s visit to China, Deng and Zhou Enlai met with President Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon.
After the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, Deng, then in her seventies, represented the Chinese people on official visits between 1977 and 1980 to Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Japan, North Korea, Iran, France, and the European Parliament. She also received visiting heads of state and government officials, including President of Mauritania Moktar Ould Daddah, Leader of North Korea Kim Il-sung, Prime Minister of the UK Margaret Thatcher, and Prime Minister of Japan Yasuhiro Nakasone.
Advocacy for women's rights
Marriage law
Deng opposed the feudal system of arranged marriage and upheld the principle of freedom in marriage. Under her leadership, the drafting of the Marriage Law began in the autumn of 1948. She organized research on marriage practices across various regions, aiming to abolish the feudal marriage system and establish freedom of marriage, gender equality, monogamy, and protection of women’s and children’s rights.Deng held the view that women suffered the most under feudal rule and marriage customs. Amid debates over the new law, she firmly advocated the abolition of child marriage, forced marriage, and arranged or commercialized marriages. She also supported the principle that if one party sought a divorce and mediation failed, the divorce should be granted.
By early 1949, she helped draft the Marriage Law. During the deliberation of the 1954 Constitution, Deng emphasized gender equality, respect for mothers, care for children, and opposition to discrimination against mothers. These ideas were later incorporated into the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, the country’s first constitution. In Chapter III, “The Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens,” Article 86 affirms that women enjoy both the right to vote and the right to be elected. Article 96 further states that women in China enjoy equal rights with men in political, economic, cultural, social, and family life. In other words, marriage, the family, mothers, and children are placed under the protection of the state.
Land reform
During the Land Reform Movement, Deng emphasized the need to mobilize peasant women to further the agrarian revolution. In a 1947 policy meeting on land reform, she stated that "women function as great mobilizers when they speak bitterness.". In 1948, Deng advocated for rural women to take up leadership roles in the land reform movement and persuaded the top leadership of the Chinese Communist Party to include the liberation of women as a core tenet of the movement. Furthermore, she confronted gender discrimination within the party and made sure that land reform policies addressed the unique problems rural women encountered within patriarchal families such as the unequal domestic workload.Birth control advocacy
According to official documentations, the push for birth control advocacy began when Deng Yingchao tabled a petition authored by "women" in April 1953. The petition demanded wider availability of birth control. By August 1953, Deng Xiaoping raised the issue at the ACWF and ordered the Chinese Ministry of Health to allow contraceptive imports again and endorse its use. In a separate letter to Deng Xiaoping in May 1954, Deng Yingchao further advocated for the ban on birth control to be reversed by echoing the demands of women workers for contraceptives. In response, Deng Xiaoping ordered Xi Zhongxun, father of current China President Xi Jinping, to work with the Ministry of Health on the issue.Personal life
In 1919, Deng Yingchao met Zhou Enlai, who was six years older than her, during the May Fourth Movement. The two married on August 8, 1925. That same year, Deng discovered that she was pregnant for the first time. Worried that pregnancy would affect her work and revolutionary activities, she secretly terminated the pregnancy without telling Zhou Enlai.In 1927, Deng experienced a difficult labor. The use of forceps caused severe injury to the baby’s skull, and the child, a boy, died shortly after birth. The couple never had any children afterward. Nevertheless, they adopted several orphans including those of CCP members who died during conflicts, such as Li Peng, who later became the Premier of the [People's Republic of China].
Death and legacy
After retiring, Deng Yingchao's health declined. In 1990, she was admitted to the hospital five times because of colds and pneumonia. In August 1991, she began to suffer from renal failure and became unconscious several times.At 6:55 am on 11 July 1992, Deng Yingchao died in Beijing Hospital at the age of 88. After cremation, her ashes were scattered in the same place where Zhou Enlai's ashes had been scattered. The official Party evaluation of her is "a great proletarian revolutionary, politician, famous social activist, staunch Marxist, outstanding leader of the party and the country, pioneer of the Chinese women's movement, and highly respected chairman of the Sixth CPPCC".
There is a memorial hall dedicated to her and her husband in Tianjin.