Believer's baptism

Believer's baptism is the practice of baptizing those who are able to make a conscious profession of faith, as contrasted to the practice of baptizing infants. Credobaptists believe that infants incapable of consciously believing should not be baptized.
The mode of believer's baptism depends on the Christian denomination, and is done either by pouring or by immersion. Among those denominations that practice immersion, the way that it is practiced depends on the Church; the Schwarzenau Brethren and the River Brethren for example teach "trine immersion, that is, dipping three times forward in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit."
Certain denominations of Methodism, including the Free Methodist Church and Evangelical Wesleyan Church, practice infant baptism for families who desire it for their children, but provide a rite for child dedication for those who have a preference for believer's baptism only after their child has made a personal acceptance of Jesus as their savior.
Denominations and groups who practice believer's baptism were historically referred to as "Anabaptist", though this term is used primarily to categorize the denominations and adherents belonging to the Anabaptist branch of Christianity that emerged in the era of the Radical Reformation.

History

The Anabaptists regard their ideas as being based on the teaching of Jesus Christ, who, according to the Gospel of Matthew chapter 28, invited to make disciples in all nations and to baptize them in the name of the Father, of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. According to some theologians, it is natural to follow the order thus suggested, either to baptize someone who has become a disciple before, which is not possible with a baby or a child. They contend that in the New Testament, references to the baptized relate only to believers who have experienced a new birth.

Patristics

Apostolic Fathers

The Didache has been a matter of discussion among Protestants on what it teaches about baptism. The Didache has been argued to have assumed believer's baptism, as it assumes discipleship before baptism and does not mention infant baptism. Against this, Philip Schaff argued that the silence of the Didache about infant baptism "cannot be fairly used as an argument against it".
Similar to Tertullian later, the Shepherd of Hermas implies for the practice of delaying baptism for the practical reason of the fear of post-baptismal sins, as Hermas says those who fall have only one chance of penance.
Polycarp stated, "I have served him eighty-six years and in no way has he dealt unjustly with me". Proponents of infant baptism argue that this quote shows Polycarp being baptized as an infant, the argument being that if Polycarp was a servant of Christ for 86 years, he would have been a servant of Christ from infancy, suggesting infant baptism. However, against the argument, Schoedel William argued that the quote is ambiguous as regards baptism, and that Polycarp meant by paraphrasing: "I have always served Jesus and I am not going to cease even at the age of 86."

Ante-Nicene Christianity

Infant baptism in this time was affirmed by Hippolytus of Rome and Cyprian, who announced the decision of the African synod to require the baptism of infants. The practice is also clearly practiced in the churches of Egypt very early, as seen from the writings of Origen, who claimed it as apostolic tradition. However, according to Schreiner, Origen's need to make an apology for infant baptism implies it was not a universal belief. Tertullian, in his treatise on baptism, advises the postponement of baptism in the case of little children, arguing that it is better to wait until one is ready to live what he professes in baptism rather than to repudiate the profession by wickedness. He however also advises to postpone the baptism of the unmarried, and mentions that the baptism of infants existed during his time, having sponsors speaking on their behalf.
Philip Schaff among many others have argued that Justin Martyr affirmed infant baptism, Justin stating that some in his day have been disciples of Jesus since childhood, while Dan Taylor instead claimed that Justin Martyr is "clear and full evidence" that infant baptism was not practiced during his time. He highlighted Justin's statements that one was "persuaded that the things spoken and taught by us are true", before baptism. Dan Taylor argued against the interpretation of the quote used to justify infant baptism, stating that by "discipleship", Justin was not referring to baptism but to teaching.
Thomas Schreiner argued that the Apology of Aristedes indirectly excludes infant baptism, stating that the children of believers were considered part of the Christian community only after conversion.
Clement of Alexandria made no clear statements on infant baptism. Proponents of believer's baptism have argued that because Clement of Alexandria connects repentance and baptism, he supported the practice. On the other hand Philip Schaff wrote that some statements that he makes can unclearly imply infant baptism.
Eusebius mentioned that an earlier presbyter who took a child and "committed to him, reared, kept, cherished, and finally baptized him".
In inscriptions from the end from the second century and later in which the date of baptism and death are mentioned, there is a close correlation between the time of baptism and their time of death. For example, Antonia Cyriaceti died and received baptism on the same day, Felite received baptism March 26 and died April 29. Multiple other inscriptions mention people of varying ages, who died as "neophytes" which implies someone whose baptism was a recent event, such as a Greek inscription that mentioned Achillia, who died in their 5th year as a neophyte.
The policy of the Montanists discouraged baptism of infants. Additionally, some have argued that the schismatic Novatians did not generally baptize infants, though the stance of the Novatians is disputed and by this point infant baptism had become clear among many orthodox writers.

Post-Nicene Christianity

Thomas Schreiner pointed out that many of the Cappadocian Fathers were not baptized until adulthood, including Basil the Great, Gregory of Naziansus, and Gregory of Nyssa. Schreiner argued that Gregory of Naziansus was generally opposed to infant baptism, preferring children who were old enough to understand the "basic outlines of the faith" to be baptized, except when there was a danger of death for the infant. Schreiner also argued that Cyril of Jerusalem implies the baptized should be old enough to understand and ready to obey certain commands. Additionally, Basil of Caesarea defined baptism as an expression of faith, stating: "baptism is established by faith, and each is carried out by the same names. For as we believe in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, so also we are baptized in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The confession that brings salvation comes first and there follows baptism which seals our assent."
Jerome, Rufinus of Aquileia, Ambrose and John Chrysostom received baptism at a later age. Monica did not baptize Augustine as a child because of the fear of post-baptismal sins, the situation of Basil and Augustine are however different, there are no indications that St. Emmelia, who was the mother of Basil, feared post-baptismal sins like Monica did for Augustine.
Augustine argued that the custom infant baptism has been handed down from Jesus and the apostles to the church. During the Pelagian controversy, both Caelestius and Augustine affirmed the validity of infant baptism, but the Pelagians denied that infants have sin in them.
The practice of infant baptism was additionally affirmed by the Council of Carthage in 418, stating that infant baptism cleanses original sin. John Chrysostom and Prosper of Aquitane likewise affirmed infant baptism.

Medieval

, despite being in support of infant baptism, said that baptism "in the ancient times" was performed on those who had already matured.
During the medieval age, infant baptism was opposed by the Arnoldists, Waldensians, and Peter of Bruys. The Waldensians also practiced baptism by full immersion. Reinerius mentioned that the Waldensians believed that the "ablution which is given to infants profits nothing".
The Paulicians strongly opposed infant baptism; they only gave baptism to adults after instruction, confession, and repentance. The Bogomils and Cathars also rejected the baptism of infants. However, they did not believe anyone should be baptized in water at all, and instead believed baptism to be of a spiritual character.
Though infant baptism was practiced in the Bohemian reformation, a few also practiced believer's baptism. This includes Petr Chelčický who preferred to baptize those of older age, however without proposing re-baptism and the radical Taborite Pierre Kanis, who believed baptism should be withheld until the age of 30.
Sebastian Frank wrote that "The Picards in Bohemia are divided into two, or some say three parties, the large, the small, the very small, who hold in all things with the Anabaptists".

Protestant Reformation

In the early church, instances of baptisms following conversion to Christianity are recorded. Advocates of believers' baptism argue that this implies infants would not be baptized since they could not profess faith for themselves. Beginning with Augustine, the church solidified the practice of infant baptism and there is little mention of competing practices until the 1500s. Augustine held the view that baptism was a requirement for the washing away of sins. He was faced with the issue of whether an unconscious or unwilling individual on their deathbed should be baptized; he felt it was better to err on the side of caution and baptize such a person.
Michael Servetus and the Zwickau prophets opposed infant baptism. Additionally, Andreas Karlstad opposed infant baptism but did not demand rebaptism of once baptized infants.
In the early 16th century, the Anabaptist movement began demanding that baptismal candidates be able to make a freely chosen profession of faith, thus rejecting the baptism of infants. This, and other doctrinal differences, led both Catholics and Protestants to persecute the Anabaptists, executing them by fire, sword, or drowning. Major Anabaptist theologians included: Balthasar Hubmaier, Jakob Hutter, Melchior Hofmann, John of Leiden and Menno Simons. Ulrich Zwingli once met Balthasar Hubmaier and agreed that infant baptism should be discontinued, however Zwingli would later become a persecutor of those who denied infant baptism. However Hubmaier would allow infant baptism in extreme situations.
Historians trace the earliest "Baptist" church to 1609 in Amsterdam in the Dutch Republic, with English Separatist John Smyth as its pastor. In 1641, the Baptist movements began adopting baptism by immersion. Some of them may have insisted on credobaptism by affusion a few decades earlier.
Advocates of believer's baptism contend that non-Biblical records are not authoritative, and that no evidence exists from the Bible or early Christian literature that infant baptism was practiced by the apostles.