Type (biology)


In biology, a type is a particular specimen of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally associated. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralizes the defining features of that particular taxon. In older usage, a type was a taxon rather than a specimen.
A taxon is a scientifically named grouping of organisms with other like organisms, a set that includes some organisms and excludes others, based on a detailed published description and on the provision of type material, which is usually available to scientists for examination in a major museum research collection, or similar institution.

Type specimen

According to a precise set of rules laid down in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, the scientific name of every taxon is almost always based on one particular specimen, or in some cases specimens. Types are of great significance to biologists, especially to taxonomists. Types are usually physical specimens that are kept in a museum or herbarium research collection, but failing that, an image of an individual of that taxon has sometimes been designated as a type. Describing species and appointing type specimens is part of scientific nomenclature and alpha taxonomy.
When identifying material, a scientist attempts to apply a taxon name to a specimen or group of specimens based on their understanding of the relevant taxa, based on having read the type description, preferably also based on an examination of all the type material of all of the relevant taxa. If there is more than one named type that all appear to be the same taxon, then the oldest name takes precedence and is considered to be the correct name of the material in hand. If on the other hand, the taxon appears never to have been named at all, then the scientist or another qualified expert picks a type specimen and publishes a new name and an official description.
Depending on the nomenclature code applied to the organism in question, a type can be a specimen, a culture, an illustration, or a description.
For example, in the research collection of the Natural History Museum in London, there is a bird specimen numbered 1886.6.24.20. This is a specimen of a kind of bird commonly known as the spotted harrier, which currently bears the scientific name Circus assimilis. This particular specimen is the holotype for that species; the name Circus assimilis refers, by definition, to the species of that particular specimen. That species was named and described by Jardine and Selby in 1828, and the holotype was placed in the museum collection so that other scientists might refer to it as necessary.
At least for type specimens there is no requirement for a "typical" individual to be used. Genera and families, particularly those established by early taxonomists, tend to be named after species that are more "typical" for them, but here too this is not always the case and due to changes in systematics cannot be. Hence, the term name-bearing type or onomatophore is sometimes used, to denote the fact that biological types do not define "typical" individuals or taxa, but rather fix a scientific name to a specific operational taxonomic unit. Type specimens are theoretically even allowed to be aberrant or deformed individuals or color variations, though this is rarely chosen to be the case, as it makes it hard to determine to which population the individual belonged.
The usage of the term type is somewhat complicated by slightly different uses in botany and zoology. In the PhyloCode, type-based definitions are replaced by phylogenetic definitions.

Older terminology

In some older taxonomic works the word "type" has sometimes been used differently. The meaning was similar in the first Laws of Botanical Nomenclature, but has a meaning closer to the term taxon in some other works:
Ce seul caractère permet de distinguer ce type de toutes les autres espèces de la section.... Après avoir étudié ces diverses formes, j'en arrivai à les considérer comme appartenant à un seul et même type spécifique.
Translation: This single character permits distinguish this type from all other species of the section... After studying the diverse forms, I came to consider them as belonging to the one and the same specific type.

In botany

In botanical nomenclature, a type, "is that element to which the name of a taxon is permanently attached." In botany, a type is either a specimen or an illustration. A specimen is a real plant, dead and kept safe, "curated", in a herbarium. Examples of where an illustration may serve as a type include:
  • A detailed drawing, painting, etc., depicting the plant, from the early days of plant taxonomy. A dried plant was difficult to transport and hard to keep safe for the future; many specimens from the early days of botany have since been lost or damaged. Highly skilled botanical artists were sometimes employed by a botanist to make faithful and detailed illustrations. Some such illustrations have become the best record and have been chosen to serve as the type of taxon.
  • A detailed picture of something that can be seen only through a microscope. A tiny "plant" on a microscope slide makes for a poor type: the microscope slide may be lost or damaged, or it may be very difficult to find the "plant" in question among whatever else is on the microscope slide. An illustration makes for a much more reliable type.
A type does not determine the circumscription of the taxon. For example, the common dandelion is a controversial taxon: some botanists consider it to consist of over a hundred species, and others regard it as a single species. The type of the name Taraxacum officinale is the same whether the circumscription of the species includes all those small species or whether the circumscription is limited to only one small species among the other hundred. The name Taraxacum officinale is the same and the type of the name is the same, but the extent to which the name actually applies varies greatly. Setting the circumscription of a taxon is done by a taxonomist in a publication.
Miscellaneous notes:
  1. Only a species or an infraspecific taxon can have a type of its own. For most new taxa at these ranks, a type should not be an illustration.
  2. A genus has the same type as that of one of its species.
  3. A family has the same type as that of one of its genera.
The ICN provides a listing of the various kinds of types, the most important of which is the holotype. These are
  • holotype – the single specimen or illustration that the author clearly indicated to be the nomenclatural type of a name
  • lectotype – a specimen or illustration designated from the original material as the nomenclatural type when there was no holotype specified or the holotype has been lost or destroyed
  • isotype – a duplicate of the holotype
  • syntype – any specimen cited in the original description when there is no holotype, or any one of two or more specimens simultaneously designated as types
  • paratype – any specimen cited in the original description that is not the holotype nor an isotype, nor one of the syntypes
  • neotype – a specimen or illustration selected to serve as nomenclatural type if no material from the original description is available
  • epitype – a specimen or illustration selected to serve as an interpretative type, usually when another kind of type does not show the critical features needed for identification
The word "type" appears in botanical literature as a part of some older terms that have no status under the ICN: for example a clonotype.

In zoology

In zoological nomenclature, the type of a species or subspecies is a specimen or series of specimens. The type of a genus or subgenus is a species. The type of a suprageneric taxon is a genus. Names higher than superfamily rank do not have types. A "name-bearing type" is a specimen or image that "provides the objective standard of reference whereby the application of the name of a nominal taxon can be determined."

Definitions

  • A type specimen is a vernacular term typically used for an individual or fossil that is any of the various name-bearing types for a species. For example, the type specimen for the species Homo neanderthalensis was the specimen "Neanderthal-1" discovered by Johann Karl Fuhlrott in 1856 at Feldhofer in the Neander Valley in Germany, consisting of a skullcap, thigh bones, part of a pelvis, some ribs, and some arm and shoulder bones. There may be more than one type specimen, but there is only one holotype.
  • A type species is the nominal species that is the name-bearing type of a nominal genus or subgenus.
  • A type genus is the nominal genus that is the name-bearing type of a nominal family-group taxon.
  • The type series are all those specimens included by the author in a taxon's formal description, unless the author explicitly or implicitly excludes them as part of the series.

    Use of type specimens

Although in reality biologists may examine many specimens of a new taxon before writing an official published species description, nonetheless, under the formal rules for naming species, a single type must be designated, as part of the published description.
A type description must include a diagnosis, and an indication of where the type specimen or specimens are deposited for examination. The geographical location where a type specimen was originally found is known as its '. In the case of parasites, the term ' is used to indicate the host organism from which the type specimen was obtained.
Zoological collections are maintained by universities and museums. Ensuring that types are kept in good condition and made available for examination by taxonomists are two important functions of such collections. And, while there is only one holotype designated, there can be other "type" specimens, the following of which are formally defined: