Confucian court examination system in Vietnam

The Confucian court examination system in Vietnam was a civil service examination system for selecting civil officials. Established in 1075 under the Lý dynasty and lasting until 1919 under the Nguyễn dynasty, this system was heavily influenced by the Chinese imperial examination model. The examinations evaluated candidates' understanding of ethical and political principles in the Confucian classics. Candidates were required to demonstrate literary competence through established classical forms, including kinh nghĩa, thơ - phú, chế - chiếu - biểu and văn sách.

History

The civil service examination system was introduced to Vietnam during the extended period of Chinese domination. Local individuals from the Annam, such as Jiang Gongfu, successfully passed the imperial examinations. Jiang Gongfu subsequently served as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Dezong of the Tang dynasty.

Lý dynasty

The civil service examinations were first instituted at court level by Emperor Lý Nhân Tông in 1075. The civil examination had three-rounds. These rounds tested knowledge of the Confucian classics, poetry, and the ability to compose official documents and essays. There were no set intervals for civil examinations. In total, there were seven examinations during the Lý dynasty:

1075, the top candidate was Lê Văn Thịnh, a native of Đông Cứu, Gia Định prefecture.
1086, the top candidate was Mạc Hiển Tích, a native of Lũng Động, Chí Linh district.
1152, the examination was held in the court.
1165, candidates were tested for the rank of Thái học sinh
1185, the three top candidates were Bùi Quốc Khái, Đỗ Thế Diên, and Đặng Nghiêm. Candidates ages 15 and older were allowed to participate.
1193
1195, candidates were tested on the three teachings. The historian Ngô Sĩ Liên criticised the exam where he stated that Confucians of the past studied the Hundred Schools of Thought extensively and also studied Taoism and Buddhism. However, later realised that Taoism and Buddhism were vague and elusive, lacking any firm grasp. Thus, they returned to studying the Six Classics. Anyone who studied Confucianism and then also studied Taoism and Buddhism would find Taoist texts saying things like: "Heaven transforms in myriad ways; whether there is virtue or not depends on the circumstances; responses arise accordingly; the traces are never constant." Buddhist texts say: "No birth, no death, no coming, no going, no strength, no form." All of this is disordered... and would still be of no benefit.

In the first volume of the book, Đỉnh khiết Đại Việt lịch triều đăng khoa lục. There is a passage in the appendix that states:
The exact date of this examination is uncertain because the era name during the reign of Lý Huệ Tông was Kiến Gia, not Trinh Khánh and the year Mậu Thìn does not correspond to any year within his reign.

Trần dynasty

In 1227, the civil service examinations were re-instituted where candidates were tested on the three teachings.
In 1232, during the reign of Trần Thái Tông, the civil service examinations were expanded upon, initially the court instituted the Thái học sinh examination. The examinations were to be held every seven years. Later, the 1247 examination introduced the rankings of tam giáp, dividing candidates into three tiers for the court examination.

Dynasty	Nhất giáp	Nhị giáp	Tam giáp
Trần dynasty	Tam khôi Trạng nguyên Bảng nhãn Thám hoa	Hoàng giáp	Thái học sinh
Lê dynasty	Tam khôi /Tiến sĩ cập đệ Trạng nguyên Bảng nhãn Thám hoa	Hoàng giáp Tiến sĩ xuất thân	Đồng tiến sĩ xuất thân
Nguyễn dynasty	Tam khôi /Tiến sĩ cập đệ Trạng nguyên Bảng nhãn Thám hoa	Hoàng giáp Tiến sĩ xuất thân	Đồng tiến sĩ xuất thân

Beginning in 1256, the rank of trạng nguyên was split into Kinh trạng nguyên and Trại trạng nguyên as the provinces from that year, Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An were designated as rural territories. This distinction continued until 1275.
In 1305, during the reign of Emperor Trần Anh Tông, the structure of the examinations was changed from three-rounds to four-rounds which consisted of:

Kinh nghĩa
Thơ - phú
Chế - chiếu - biểu
Đối sách

Prior to the examination, there was an entrance exam to eliminate unqualified candidates. It consisted of candidates copying from memory excerpts of two books, Y quốc thiên and Mục thiên tử truyện. The first round of the exam required candidates to analyze Confucian classics and explain them. The second round required candidates to write a poem in long-form five-character poems. The round also required candidates to write a phú in eight-rhyme verse using these four characters to rhyme. The third round tested candidates on writing edicts, decrees, and memorials. The final round focused on the policy response essay, where candidates addressed hypothetical or real policy issues asked by the emperor, writing proposals for governance.
In 1345, examinations were held for students of imperial academy, the book Đại Việt sử ký tiệp lục tổng tự records:
It was not until the 1374 examination that changed rank of Thái học sinh into tiến sĩ.
In 1396, emperor Trần Thuận Tông issued an edict establishing the format for the provincial examination and the metropolitan examination, both to be conducted in four stages of classical-style composition. It also abolished the ám tả part of the examination.

One essay on exegesis of the classics, including sections such as breaking the topic, transitional phrases, minor discussion, original theme, major discussion, and conclusion, with a minimum of 500 characters.
One regulated poem in Tang style, and one phú in either the ancient style, the Li Sao style, or the Wenxuan style, each also requiring at least 500 characters.
One imperial edict, one imperial decree, and one memorial written in Tang-style four-six prose.
One policy essay, with topics drawn from the Confucian Classics, history, or current affairs, each essay required to be at least 1,000 characters.

The provincial examination is held one year, with the metropolitan examination following in the subsequent year.

Hồ dynasty

Shortly after Hồ Quý Ly usurped the Trần throne in 1400, in the eighth month of that year, an examination was held to test candidates for the rank of Thái học sinh where thirty people passed the examination. The top candidate of the examination was Lưu Thúc Kiệm, native of Trạm Lộ, Gia Bình district. Candidates in the Nhị giáp tier included Nguyễn Trãi, Lý Tử Tấn, Vũ Mộng Nguyên, Hoàng Hiến, and Nguyễn Thành.
A provincial examination was held in eighth month of 1405 at the Ministry of Rites where 170 candidates passed. Anyone who passed would be exempt from corvée labor. In the eighth month of the following year, the Ministry of Rites would hold an examination, and those who passed would be exempt from official appointment. In the eighth month of the year after that, the metropolitan examination would be held, and those who passed would be appointed as Thái học sinh. In the subsequent year, the provincial examination would be held again, repeating the cycle.
The examination method followed the Yuan dynasty system, consisting of three main rounds. The writing component was divided into four rounds, with an additional round for writing and calculation, making five rounds in total.

Fourth Era of Northern Domination

A section in the book, Lịch triều hiến chương loại chí, states:
During this period, Neo-Confucianism gained more influence in Vietnam which influenced later examinations.

Tây Sơn dynasty

In 1789, Sùng Chính viện was established and Nguyễn Thiếp was appointed as head of the academy. Nguyễn Thiếp was tasked with reforming the civil service examinations and translating Chinese classics such as Four Books and Five Classics into vernacular Vietnamese for wider dissemination. These translations were done in giải âm. Unlike previous dynasties with the exception of the Hồ dynasty, vernacular Vietnamese was included in the examinations. This was done by having the examination questions be written in Vietnamese and in the third round of the examinations, candidates had to compose poems and prose in Nôm.
The first and only Nôm provincial examination was held in eighth month of 1789 in the Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An region during emperor Quang Trung's reign. The top graduate was Phan Đăng Đệ, a man from Trà Lũ village, Giao Thủy district, Xuân Trường prefecture, Nam Định province. After the emperor’s death, Emperor Cảnh Thịnh sought to continue his father’s policies; however, the examination system during his reign was disrupted by war. Since regular examinations could not be held, regulations for khảo khóa were established.
In the second month, candidates entered the first round, tested on five topics of kinh nghĩa and one topic of truyện nghĩa. In the fifth month, they entered the second round, tested on one composition each in parallel writing, chiếu, chế, and biểu. In the eighth month, they entered the third round, tested on one regulated Tang-style poem in seven-character lines and one phú in the eight-rhyme style. In the eleventh month, they entered the fourth round, tested on five or six passages of sách vấn. Finally, in the twelfth month, a re-examination was conducted, and the results were officially posted.
Although these examinations were referred to as khảo khóa, they were practically a provincial examination. There were two examinations in total, one in 1800 and the other in 1801. These examinations did not use chữ Nôm.

Nguyễn dynasty

It wasn't until 1807 during Gia Long's reign that civil service examinations were re-instituted due to the instability of the state. Initially, only the thi Hương were held every six years. It was then in 1822, that thi Hội, and thi Đình were held again. In 1825, it was changed so that examinations were to be held every three years rather than six. It was standardised to be that the provincial examination would be held every Rat, Horse, Cat, and Rooster year. The exams in Thừa Thiên, Gia Định, and Nghệ An were held in seventh lunar month, while those in Thanh Hóa, Nam Định, and Bắc Thành were held in ninth lunar month. While the metropolitan examination would be held every Dragon, Dog, Buffalo, and Goat year, in third lunar month.
An excerpt from the book, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ, stated:
As seen above, Nguyễn dynasty adopted the Lê dynasty system of four rounds unlike in the Qing dynasty where there was three rounds only in provincial and metropolitan exams. The eight-legged essay style was also used in the exams during the Nguyễn dynasty, beginning in 1853, the eight-legged format became mandatory. In the provincial exams, the grade system that was used is the same as system used in the Qing dynasty:

However, the Nguyễn dynasty used a point-based system for grading papers in the metropolitan and palace exams:

9–10 points: 優項
7–8 points: 優次
5–6 points: 平項
3–4 points: 平次
1–2 points: 次項 <1 point: 劣項

During the period of reformed imperial examinations that took place from 1906 to 1919, the contents of the exams were changed under French supervision. The changes are shown here:

1909 provincial examination

Policy essay : candidates were required to write an essay in Classical Chinese, addressing topics such as literature, ethics, geography and history of both the North and the South, as well as contemporary political issues.
Classical Chinese essays: two essay topics, written in Classical Chinese.
Vietnamese essays: two essay topics written in the Vietnamese alphabet.
Two essays: one composed in Classical Chinese, the other in Vietnamese.

1910 metropolitan examination

Policy essay : five questions on Chinese classics, two questions on commentary, two questions on Chinese history, and one question on Vietnamese history.
Chế - chiếu - biểu
Three essays: one in Classical Chinese and two in Vietnamese.
Policy essay : two questions on Western history, two questions on natural sciences, two questions on geography, two questions on historical figures, and two questions on current affairs.

1912 provincial examination

Policy essay : candidates were required to write an essay in Classical Chinese, addressing topics such as literature, ethics, Southern history, and politics of the Southern court.
National language: an essay regarding three topics, literature, mathematics, and geography written in Vietnamese.
Two essays: one composed in Classical Chinese, the other in Vietnamese.

1913 metropolitan examination

Policy essay
Chiếu - tấu - biểu
Three essays: written in Vietnamese.
Policy essay

1915 provincial examination

Policy essay : candidates were required to write an essay in Classical Chinese, addressing topics such as literature, ethics, and politics. They were also required to translate one topic from Classical Chinese into Vietnamese.
National language: an essay regarding four topics, literature, history, geography, and mathematics written in Vietnamese.
French translation: candidates were required to translate two topics from Classical Chinese to French and French to Vietnamese.
One essay: composed in Classical Chinese.

1916 metropolitan examination

Same contents as the 1913 metropolitan examination.

1919 metropolitan examination

Policy essay : one question on Chinese classics, one questions on commentary, one question on current affairs, one question on Vietnamese history, and one question on Western history.
Chiếu - biểu - từ trát
Two questions on mathematics and one essay topic written in Vietnamese.
Vietnamese translation into French, French translation from Classical Chinese, and one essay topic in French.

During the 1910 court examination, a policy essay question was asked on how could one use the Book of Changes for practical purposes. The question was worded so that using Chinese classics that were obscure allowing for it to bypass French censors. It allowed for the examiners to ask candidates for commentary on the language reforms of the Tonkin Free School by comparing it with situations of some hexagrams.
The examinations were suspended by the French in 1913 with the last local exams occurring from 1915 to 1919, thus making Vietnam the last country to hold Confucian civil service examinations.

Exam procedures

During the Nguyễn dynasty, the examination system was divided into three examinations, this included thi Hương, thi Hội, and thi Đình.
Candidates had to pass all three rounds in order to qualify for the final review round.
The provincial examinations awarded only the degrees of tú tài /sinh đồ, and cử nhân. Starting in 1822, those who attained the cử nhân degree became eligible to advance to the lowest tier of the metropolitan examinations, where the minimum achievable title was tiến sĩ. The top candidates of the triennial examinations are referred to as Giải nguyên, Hội nguyên, and Đình nguyên respectively.
In addition to accrediting scholars for civil service appointments drawn from successful provincial candidates, the examination system also selected top scholars for the court examination held in the capital. The highest distinction, trạng nguyên, was awarded to the first-ranked candidate. This title was first awarded to Lê Văn Thịnh. Beginning in 1247, the court examinations adopted a three-tiered first-class ranking system modeled after the Chinese model, with trạng nguyên as the top prize. Under this system, the first scholar to receive the title was Nguyễn Hiền. As a result, the total number of trạng nguyên titleholders is 55 when counted from Lê Văn Thịnh, but only 49 when counted from Nguyễn Hiền, who received the title in 1247 during the reign of Trần Thái Tông.
The three titles were as follows :Trạng nguyên – first place, reserved for the best scholarBảng nhãn – second placeThám hoa – third placeTiến sĩ – all the other successful applicants
Several terms rooted from the civil service examination are used today to refer to academic terms such as 'bachelor' as cử nhân, 'doctorate' as tiến sĩ, a postsecondary student as sinh viên, etc.
The list of trạng nguyên includes several notable figures in Vietnam's history, such as Mạc Đĩnh Chi and Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm. The last trạng nguyên was awarded to Trịnh Tuệ in 1736 during the reign of Lê Ý Tông.

Attire

In volume 108 of Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ, records the regulations for the examination ceremonial attire. Cử nhân were required to wear southern silk gauze hats. Tú tài were required to wear wangjin, cross-collar shirt also made of southern silk gauze, a high cloth round-collared robe, and a blue silk skirt. Examination officials will bestow new Cống sĩ with a scholar cap. While, Tiến sĩ were required to wear black gauze caps, decorated with gold and silver flowers. They were required to wear a wangjin. The robes were white silk with blue skirt They carried wooden tablets, wore leather belts, and boots.

Examination hall

Examination halls for provincial examinations were often temporary and dismantled after the examinations end. In the Lê dynasty, the cubicles that candidates stayed in were later changed to bamboo cages. Candidates were seated according to name order. The cages were approximately 1.2 meters high and 1.6 meters wide. In the Nguyễn dynasty, the bamboo cages were replaced by a type of tent called a lều chõng. The tent consisted of a chõng which was a low bamboo pallet covered by a lều, a tent with a thatched roof. Each cubicle was standardised to be 1 tầm high and 1 tầm wide.
Until 1840, elephants were used to guard examination halls. This was done for two reasons, to highlight the importance of the examinations to help suppress cheating during the exam.

Example essay

The book, Hà Nam hương thí văn tuyển which contains an anthology of selected essays and information about the candidates from the 1900 provincial examination in Hà Nam. There were in total 90 people who passed and became cử nhân.
Essays were typically followed the style of eight-legged essay.
The first round exam topic :

天地之大德曰生 - The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is called life. Candidates had to identify and state where this quotation is from.

Here is an excerpt from the first essay.