Candidate (degree)
Candidate is the name of various academic degrees, which are today mainly awarded in Scandinavia. The degree title was phased out in much of Europe through the 1999 Bologna Process, which has re-formatted academic degrees in Europe.
The degrees are now, or were once, awarded in the Nordic countries, the Soviet Union, the Netherlands, and Belgium. In Scandinavia and the Nordic countries, a candidate degree is a higher professional-level degree which corresponds to 5–7 years of studies. In the Soviet states, a candidate degree was a research degree roughly equivalent to a Doctor of Philosophy degree. In the Netherlands and Belgium, it was an undergraduate first-cycle degree roughly comparable with the bachelor's degree.
Etymology and origins
The term is derived from the Latin candida, meaning white. In Ancient Rome, men running for political office would typically wear togas chalked and bleached to be bright white at speeches, debates, conventions, and other public functions. The term candidate thus came to mean someone who seeks an office of some sort.Today, the degrees continue to be referred to by their Latin title, with both male and female degree recipients being called candidates in English. The degree titles are typically abbreviated; for example, a Candidatus juris is commonly referred to as ''cand.jur.''
Use by region
Nordic region
In Scandinavia, the term was introduced in the early 18th century and initially referred to the higher degrees in theology, law, and medicine. A candidate's degree in the relevant field was a requirement for appointment to higher offices in the state administration, including as priests, judges, other state officials, and doctors. In Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the term "candidate" was eventually used for higher professional academic degrees, usually awarded after around 5–7 years of studies. In Norway, only a few Candidate's degrees are still awarded, while in Denmark and Sweden, all Candidate's degrees are retained.In Denmark, educational reforms began in 1993 to make bachelor's and master's degrees commonly available as a two-step alternative to the Candidate's degree. Despite these reforms, the candidate degree was regarded as the standard academic qualification well into the 21st century. In 2010, the majority of students completing the required amount of studies necessary for a bachelor's degree continued with their studies to be awarded a candidate's degree, or equivalent, instead. Because most students continue to achieve this level of study, the labor market in Denmark does not respect bachelor's degrees as a first-cycle degree. Many institutions in Denmark which no longer offer the candidate degree as a result of the Bologna Process continue to offer joint bachelor-masters programs which last five years, just as the candidate degree had.
In Norway, the Quality Reform of 2003 enacted the nation's compliance with the Bologna process, and most candidates' degrees are no longer awarded for academic qualifications. A select number of professional programs, however, have been given an exception from the Bologna process, allowing candidates' degrees to continue to be awarded for specific 6-year professional programs. As of 2023, the University of Oslo, for example, awards such professional degrees in medicine, psychology, and theology.
The Low Countries
In the Netherlands and Belgium, the "Candidate's diploma" was an undergraduate first-cycle diploma that the university issued to students who passed their Candidate's examination. After obtaining the certificate, one was entitled to use the academic title Candidatus. This was the lowest academic degree that could be achieved in these countries, and is roughly comparable with the bachelor's degree.The candidate exam takes place after the student completes a substantial and pre-determined part of their university education, in the case of a five-year or more prolonged course, typically after completion of the third year. Students in a four-year class received the degree at the end of their second or during their third year, depending on the criteria set by the institution. The Candidate's degrees were phased out in the Netherlands in 1982 but have been more-or-less replaced by the bachelor's degree with the introduction of the Bologna Process.
Soviet Union
In the Soviet Union, modern Russia, and in some East European countries, candidate degrees were/are research degrees roughly equivalent to a Doctor of Philosophy.Degrees
Candidate of the Arts
A Candidate of the Arts is an academic degree currently awarded in Denmark. The degree is officially translated into English as Master of Arts and requires five years of studies. It is not to be confused with the magister's degree, a degree requiring 7–8 years of studies with a strong emphasis on the scientific thesis, and which is the approximate equivalent of a PhD degree.The degree was initially introduced in Denmark in 1883. For most of its history, the degree usually required between 4 and 5 years of studies. In its later years, the formal minimum requirement was 3.5 years for the faculties of mathematics and natural sciences, and 4–4.5 for the faculties of humanities and social sciences. Today, the degree is awarded only in humanities and requires five years of studies. The degree was also awarded in Norway beginning in 1920, based on the Danish degree; since 2003, it is no longer awarded.
Candidate of Arts and Letters
A Candidate of Arts and Letters is an academic degree in Arts and Letters awarded in Denmark. It is considered an entry-level scientific degree for careers in academia, as doctorates traditionally are awarded later in the job to senior academics. The degree was once awarded in Norway but had also been phased out by 2007. At the time, it typically required six years of study at Norwegian universities.Candidate of Economics
A Candidate of Economics is an academic degree in economics currently awarded in Denmark and formerly in Iceland and Norway. It is roughly equivalent to a Master of Economics.The degree was introduced in Norway in 1905 as a supplementary academic degree in economics. The program usually lasted two years, was conferred by the Faculty of Law, University of Oslo and primarily intended for those already holding a cand.jur. degree. The cand.oecon. did not qualify its holder for higher civil servant positions. In 1934, it became an independent 5-year program in economics. The degree was replaced in Norway by the Bachelor/Master's degree system in 2003.
The degree was first made available at the University of Iceland in 1964 as a 4-year program in Business Administration at the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. It was replaced in 1996 by the current bachelor's and master's of science programs.
Candidate of Information Technology
A Candidate of Information Technology is a graduate degree awarded in Denmark equivalent to a Master of Science in Information Technology. In Denmark, the title can be obtained at the IT University of Copenhagen and through It-vest.Candidate of Law
A Candidate of Law is both a graduate law degree awarded to law students in the Nordic region as well as an "academic status" designation for advanced Law School students in German-speaking countries.In the Nordic countries
The Candidate of Law degree was once awarded in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. The application process to study for the degree was highly competitive throughout the Nordic region, as the qualifying exam to practice law could only be taken at a university, where the government officially granted the diploma privilege.All Nordic countries—except Denmark—have changed their law degrees from the Candidate to a master's due to the Bologna Process. In Finland, the Oikeustieteen kandidaatti was replaced by Oikeustieteen maisteri, which is obtained after five years of law studies. Those previously granted a candidate of law diploma could continue using their previous title in Finland. In Iceland, the Embættispróf í lögfræði '' degree has been replaced by the ML í lögfræði '' title. In Norway, the cand.jur. was formally replaced in 2003 by the Master i Rettsvitenskap master's degree, which is obtained after five years of law studies equivalent to 300 ECTS. The last cand. jur. degrees were awarded in Norway in the spring of 2007. In Sweden, the Jurist kandidatexamen degree was replaced by Juristexamen in 2010, which is completed after four-and-a-half years of studying at the average pace. Previously graduated jur. kand. diploma holders were eligible to continue using their title before and after the Bologna process; the academic degree is split into two different diplomas. Previously, the lower degree was Varanotaari, abbreviated VN, and current lower degree Oikeusnotaari, shortened ON is awarded after completing three years of study. Before the Soviet occupation, a post-graduate law degree was awarded as a cand.jur. in Estonia. President Konstantin Päts, for example, held a cand. jur. degree from the University of Tartu. The use of the candidate system in Estonia is tied to the colonial influence of the nordic counties, especially Denmark.. In Estonia, the current post-graduate law degree is Õigusteaduse magister.
In Denmark, the Juridisk kandidateksamen is obtained after five years of law studies. Undergraduate degree is Bachelor i jura which usually take three years to complete.
In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland
In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, the term "cand. iur." is a designation used in the academic environment by advanced law students. However, it is not an academic degree. Instead, the designation is used in an internal university context or the context of publications, for example, contributions to journals or anthologies. The designation is usually obtained after successful completion of the intermediate examination and roughly corresponds to the qualification level of a Bachelor of Laws. Before passing the intermediate examination, law students shall use the designation "stud. iur.".In Germany, law school is completed with the passing of the First Law Examination after 4–6 years of study. Subsequently, graduates can be addressed as "Ref. iur." or "Jurist Univ." Some law faculties also award the academic degrees "Diplom-Jurist", "Diplom-Jurist " or "Mag. iur."
In Austria, the degree program ends with a diploma examination, and the academic degree "Mag. iur." is awarded.
In Switzerland, the designation "cand. iur. is no longer common since the Bologna reform has changed the degree program to the Bachelor's and Master's system so that the academic degrees "BLaw" are awarded after three years and "MLaw" after further two years of study. The academic degree "lic. iur." was abolished during the Bologna reform. In the undergraduate BLaw program, students generally use the designation "stud. our."