Aromatase


Aromatase, also called estrogen synthetase or estrogen synthase, is an enzyme responsible for a key step in the biosynthesis of estrogens. It is CYP19A1, a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily, which are monooxygenases that catalyze many reactions involved in steroidogenesis. In particular, aromatase is responsible for the aromatization of androgens into estrogens. The enzyme aromatase can be found in many tissues including gonads, brain, adipose tissue, placenta, blood vessels, skin, and bone, as well as in tissue of endometriosis, uterine fibroids, breast cancer, and endometrial cancer. It is an important factor in sexual development.

Function

Aromatase is localized in the endoplasmic reticulum where it is regulated by tissue-specific promoters that are in turn controlled by hormones, cytokines, and other factors. It catalyzes the last steps of estrogen biosynthesis from androgens. These steps include three successive hydroxylations of the 19-methyl group of androgens, followed by simultaneous elimination of the methyl group as formate and aromatization of the A-ring.
File:Testosterone estradiol conversion.png|thumb|500px|class=skin-invert-image|General reaction for the conversion of testosterone to estradiol catalyzed by aromatase. Steroids are composed of four fused rings. Aromatase converts the ring labeled "A" into an aromatic state.
File:Aromatase mechanism.png|thumb|500px|class=skin-invert-image|Catalytic mechanism of aromatase for the conversion of androstenedione to estrone. The methyl group is oxidized and subsequently eliminated.

Expression

Aromatase is expressed in the gonads, placenta, brain, adipose tissue, bone, and other tissues. It is almost undetectable in adult human liver.

Genomics

The gene expresses two transcript variants. In humans, the gene CYP19, located on chromosome 15q21.1, encodes aromatase. The gene has nine coding exons and a number of alternative non-coding first exons that regulate tissue specific expression.
CYP19 is present in an early-diverging chordate, the cephalochordate amphioxus, but not in the earlier diverging tunicate Ciona intestinalis. Thus, the aromatase gene evolved early in chordate evolution and does not appear to be present in nonchordate invertebrates. However, estrogens may be synthesized in some of these organisms, via other unknown pathways.

Activity

Aromatase activity is increased by age, obesity, insulin, gonadotropins, and alcohol. It also appears to be enhanced in certain estrogen-dependent local tissue next to breast tissue, endometrial cancer, endometriosis, and uterine fibroids.
Aromatase activity is decreased or antagonized by prolactin, anti-Müllerian hormone and glyphosate.

Role in sex-determination

Aromatase is generally highly present during the differentiation of ovaries. It is also susceptible to environmental influences, particularly temperature. In species with temperature-dependent sex determination, aromatase is expressed in higher quantities at temperatures that yield female offspring. Despite the fact that data suggest temperature controls aromatase quantities, other studies have shown that aromatase can overpower the effects of temperature: if exposed to more aromatase at a male-producing temperature, the organism will develop female and conversely, if exposed to less aromatase at female-producing temperatures, the organism will develop male. In organisms that develop through genetic sex determination, temperature does not affect aromatase expression and function, suggesting that aromatase is the target molecule for temperature during TSD. It varies from species to species whether it is the aromatase protein that has different activity at different temperatures or whether the amount of transcription undergone by the aromatase gene is what is temperature-sensitive, but in either case, differential development is observed at different temperatures.

Role in neuroprotection

Aromatase in the brain is usually only expressed in neurons. However, following penetrative brain injury of both mice and zebra finches, it has been shown to be expressed in astrocytes. It has also been shown to decrease apoptosis following brain injury in zebra finches. This is thought to be due to the neuroprotective actions of estrogens, including estradiol. Research has found that two pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-1β and interleukin-6, are responsible for the induction of aromatase expression in astrocytes following penetrative brain injury in the zebra finch.

Disorders

Aromatase excess syndrome

A number of investigators have reported on a rather rare syndrome of excess aromatase activity. In boys, it creates gynecomastia, and in girls, precocious puberty and gigantomastia. In both sexes, early epiphyseal closure leads to short stature. This condition is due to mutations in the CYP19A1 gene which encodes aromatase. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. It has been suggested that the pharaoh Akhenaten and other members of his family may have had this disorder, but more recent genetic tests suggest otherwise. It is one of the causes of familial precocious puberty—a condition first described in 1937.

Aromatase deficiency syndrome

This syndrome is due to a loss of function mutation within the CYP19A1 gene and is inherited in an autosomal recessive way. Accumulations of androgens during pregnancy may lead to virilization of a female at birth. Females will have primary amenorrhea. Individuals of both sexes will be tall, as lack of estrogen prevents epiphyseal closure.

Inhibition of aromatase

The following natural products have been found to have inhibiting effects on aromatase in vitro:
s have become useful in the management of patients with breast cancer whose tumor was found to be estrogen receptor positive. Inhibitors that are in current clinical use include anastrozole, exemestane, and letrozole.