Fascism in the United States
Fascism in the United States is an expression of fascist political ideology that dates back over a century in the United States, with roots in white supremacy, nativism, xenophobia and violent far-right political extremism. Although it has received less scholarly attention than fascism in Europe, particularly Nazi Germany and Italy, scholars say that far-right authoritarian movements have been a part of the politics of the United States for a long time.
Scholars believe that early 20th-century groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and domestic proto-fascist organizations that existed during the Great Depression were the originators of fascism in the U.S. These groups flourished during periods of social and political unrest. Alongside homegrown movements, German-backed political organizations worked to influence U.S. public opinion towards the Nazi cause during World War II. After the U.S.'s formal declaration of war against Germany, the U.S. Treasury Department raided the German American Bund's headquarters and arrested its leaders. Both during and after World War II, Italian anti-fascist activists and other anti-fascist groups played a role in confronting these ideologies.
Events such as the 2017 Charlottesville rally have exposed the persistence of racism, antisemitism, and white supremacy within U.S. society. The resurgence of fascist rhetoric in contemporary U.S. politics, particularly under the administration of President Donald Trump, has highlighted the persistence of far-right ideologies, and it has also rekindled questions and debates about the history of fascism in the United States.
Early origins
The origins of fascism in the United States date back to the 19th century with roots in slavery in the Antebellum South and the Confederate States of America, the subsequent passage of Black Codes and Jim Crow laws in the American South, the rise of the eugenics movement in the U.S., and the intensification of nativist and xenophobic hostility towards immigrants. During the early 20th century, several groups that have been classified as fascist organizations by contemporary historians were formed in the United States—a prominent organization is the Ku Klux Klan.Early Proto-Fascist Movements
While it is impossible to classify early nativist movements in the United States, such as the Native American Party of 1845 and the Know Nothings, as being outright fascist because their existence predated the invention of the term "fascism" by decades, many of their beliefs strongly align with the tenets of fascism. The Know Nothings glorified the Protestant Anglo-Saxon cultural, racial, and religious identity of the United States, which they believed was under attack from the mass influx of immigrants who were different from them. In accordance with their nativist policies, mainly defined by an "us vs them" mentality, the Know Nothings demonized Catholics and immigrants, and they also called for their removal from both the public and professional spheres. Furthermore, the Know Nothing movement's heavy-handed approach to intimidation, often through the use of violence, mirrored the methods which fascists would employ in the future.Ku Klux Klan
The Ku Klux Klan, or "the Klan," is an American Protestant-led Christian extremist, white supremacist, far-right hate group founded in 1865 during the post-Civil War Reconstruction era in the American South.Scholars have characterized the Klan as America's first terrorist group, comparing its emergence to the rise of fascist trends in Europe. Historian Peter Amann argued that "Undeniably, the Klan had some traits in common with European fascism—chauvinism, racism, a mystique of violence, an affirmation of a certain kind of archaic traditionalism—yet their differences were fundamental.... never envisioned a change of political or economic system."
The first Klan, founded by Confederate veterans, assaulted and murdered politically active Black people and their white political allies in the Southern United States. The second Klan was formed in 1915 as a small group in Georgia and it flourished nationwide by the mid-1920s.
Inter-war period
The rise of fascism in Europe during the interwar period raised concerns in the U.S.; however, European fascist regimes were largely viewed positively by the American ruling class. This was because fascist interpretations of ultranationalism allowed a nation to gain a significant amount of economic influence in the Western world and permitted a nation's government to destroy leftists and labor movements.Supporters of Italian fascism
During the 1920s, American scholars frequently wrote about the rise of Italian fascism under Benito Mussolini, but few of them supported it; however, Mussolini's fascist policies initially gained widespread support among Italian Americans.William Phillips, who served as the American ambassador to Italy, was "greatly impressed by the efforts of Benito Mussolini to improve the conditions of the masses" and found "much evidence" in support of the fascist argument that "they represent a true democracy in as much as the welfare of the people is their principal objective."
Phillips found Mussolini's achievements "astounding a source of constant amazement" and greatly admired his "great human qualities." United States Department of State officials enthusiastically agreed with Phillips' assessment, praising Italian fascism for having "brought order out of chaos, discipline out of license, and solvency out of bankruptcy," as well as Mussolini's "magnificent" achievements in Ethiopia during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.
The American poet Ezra Pound moved from the United States to Italy in 1924, becoming a loyal supporter of Benito Mussolini, the founder of a fascist state. He wrote articles and produced radio broadcasts that were critical of the United States, international bankers, Franklin Roosevelt, and the Jews.
His propaganda was poorly received in the U.S.
In November 1925, the Order Sons of Italy in America helped organize the first U.S. Fascist convention in Philadelphia. The goal of the convention was "setting up Fascist infiltration into political organizations and mutual aid societies so as to create friendly ties and spiritual agreement". After World War II, the organization faced criticism for the "heavy involvement by the OSIA in Mussolini's Fascist propaganda campaign in the 1920s and 1930s".
American Legion
While one would be remiss to paint the contemporary American Legion as a bastion of fascism, its early history is proof that it shared a strong feeling of solidarity with early fascist movements. Initially founded in Paris in 1919 by American soldiers who were returning to the United States after the First World War, it became an advocacy group which lobbied on behalf of veterans.However, in 1922, the year Mussolini seized power in Italy, Alvin Owsley, the National Commander of the American Legion, proclaimed that the Legion was a staunch opponent of communist and socialist movements. While he was claiming that he was defending American values such as liberty and freedom, Owsley also stated that, “Should the day ever come when they menace the freedom of our representative government, the Legion would not hesitate to take things into its own hands - to fight the 'reds' as the Fascisti of Italy fought them.” While the statement itself does not declare the Legion as outright fascist, his subsequent comment that, “ …the Fascisti are to Italy what the American Legion is to the United States. And that Mussolini, the new premier, was the commander of the Legion - the ex-servicemen of Italy…” served as an endorsement and unofficial outreach to Mussolini.
Years later, Commander John McQuigg doubled down on the Legion’s support of Italian Fascist ideology when he stated, “The Fascisti are the Legionnaires of Italy. Their aims and ideals, though not their methods, are identical with those of the American Legionnaires.” While these comments could potentially be dismissed as overly enthusiastic personal opinions of prominent individuals within the Legion, it is crucial to note that the American Legion extended numerous invitations to Mussolini to address its conventions.
The American Legion was unable to receive support from Mussolini, however, it enticed the Italian government to send Ambassador Giacomo De Martino to represent Italy at a Legion convention in 1931, where the National Executive passed a resolution in which it conveyed its support of Mussolini’s policies. Its admiration for Mussolini carried well into the decade when its national vice commander, Colonel William Esterwood, visited Italy to bestow an honorary American Legion membership upon him in 1935. By this point, however, fascism’s initial allure had begun to wane, and this move by the Legion proved unpopular with many members, leading to the Legion's cancellation of the membership. The mid-1930s proved to be a turning point for the American Legion’s flirtation with fascism, because it soon abandoned its support of fascist regimes.
Black Legion
In 1925, Virgil Effinger established the paramilitary Black Legion, a violent white supremacist offshoot of the KKK that sought to establish fascism in the United States by launching a revolution against the federal government. The Black Legion was active in the Midwestern United States in the 1920s and the 1930s and grew to prominence during the Great Depression. The FBI estimated its membership numbered "at 135,000, including a large number of public officials, including Detroit's police chief." Historians have suggested lower estimates.The Black Legion is widely viewed as having been an even more violent and radical offshoot of the Klan. In 1936, the group was suspected of having killed as many as 50 people, according to the Associated Press, including Charles Poole, an organizer for the federal Works Progress Administration. Eleven men were found guilty of Poole's murder. The Associated Press described the organization as "a group of loosely federated night-riding bands operating in several States without central discipline or common purpose beyond the enforcement by lash and pistol of individual leaders' notions of 'Americanism.'" Nearly 50 Legionnaires were ultimately convicted of murder, conspiracy to commit murder, kidnapping, arson, and perjury. Although it was responsible for numerous attacks, the Black Legion remained limited in size and ultimately petered out.