Old Akyem
Old Akyem was a large Akan polity located in the forest zone of southeastern Ghana. It occupied a strategic position between the Pra and Anum river and was connected to regional gold production, agriculture, and long-distance trade networks.
Akyem was one of the most powerful inland polities in the Pra–Ofin basin, before wars with the Akwamu and Asante reshaped the polity and led to the emergence of Abuakwa and Kotoku.
History
Origins
Akyem oral traditions trace their origins to Adanse, the Akan homeland and source of early social and political organization. From Adanse, migrant groups moved east into the Pra basin, where settlers included groups involved in early gold mining and the group that later formed the Asona ruling lineage of Akyem Abuakwa. Early communities were organized through matrilineal clans, with leadership tied to stools representing the authority of a lineage over land, settlement, and political office. Gold production connected Akyem to regional and long-distance Akan trade networks.Expansion of Old Akyem
By the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, settlements across the Akyem area became more organized. Population growth increased pressure on settlement space, leading to more structured management of land rights by clan leaders. By the early seventeenth century, a broader Akyem territorial identity was visible to European traders.Arcania and the Accanists
In 1629, a Dutch map identified the Akyem territory as "Akim", or "Great Acani." During this period, the Akyem occupied a strategic position between the Denkyira and the Akwamu, two expanding imperial Akan states. Around 1675, Heerman Abramsz reported that "Akimse Akkanists" as an inland people settled north of Accra. By the end of the seventeenth century, the polity was recognized as a major inland state in the southern Akan forest region, initially described in European accounts as being ruled by a single king. Jean Barbot and Willem Bosman later recorded that authority had shifted toward a commonwealth, with power shared among leading men.Arrival of the Agona clan
Before 1699–1701, members of the Agona clan led by Ofosu Apenten migrated eastward from Denkyira and settled by Anum River, bordering Old Akyem. The stool carried by Apenten, known as the Denkyira-Mmerayam, later became the paramount seat of Akyem Kotoku.Conflicts with Akwamu
According to J. K. Fynn, relations between Denkyira, Akyem, and Akwamu were based on rivalry and recurring hostility, driven by competition over gold, ivory, kola nuts, and slaves in the Gold Coast interior. Akwamu forces carried out repeated raids on neighboring states, including Akyem, which frequently led to warfare and disrupted farming, trade, and security in frontier settlements. Fynn notes that Akyem and Denkyira at times acted together against Akwamu, as Denkyira regarded Akyem as a sister state and shared its opposition to Akwamu's control of inland trade routes to the coast. According to Ivor Wilks, Akwamu's expansion was directed eastward and north-eastward because its western frontier was blocked by the military strength of Akyem. Akyem was in continuous battles with Akwamu over access to trade because Akwamu controlled inland routes and blocked Akyem traders from traveling south to the coast. European observers reported that the restrictions varied depending on Akwamu's political and military situation. When Akwamu was at peace, access to the coast was tightly controlled, but when Akwamu was engaged in warfare elsewhere, Akyem traders were sometimes allowed to pass. During periods of direct tension or fighting, trade through Akwamu-controlled territory was halted completely. Akwamu also attempted to block Akyem access to firearms and gunpowder, but despite these efforts Akyem forces remained well armed and militarily active. Pressure from Akyem influenced Akwamu's foreign policy, leading Ansa Sasraku, the Akwamuhene, to support Osei Tutu during the early formation of the Asante Union and to weaken cooperation between Denkyira and Akyem. According to Asante and Denkyira traditions, Osei Tutu received protection from the Akwamu court while shaping his early policies.War with Asante and tensions with Akani
During the Denkyira–Asante wars of 1699–1701, Akyem fought alongside Denkyira.The alliance was formed due to tensions with Akani groups from Adanse and Assin over control of gold mining and trade that had been developing since the 1660s, as well as their alignment with Asante. These tensions placed Akyem in direct rivalry with Assin, as both competed for inland trade and access to the coast and later fought on opposing sides during the Asante–Denkyira conflict. In 1701, Denkyira was defeated, and Akyem forces suffered heavy casualties. Bosman estimated the losses at around 30,000, although the figure is considered exaggerated. The defeat marked a turning point, as Asante continued to expand in the region. In 1702, the Denkyira–Akyem alliance achieved a temporary success, but it did not halt Asante's continued expansion. In 1706, armed groups operating from Denkyira prevented Asante traders from passing through Akyem territory to the coast. Dutch officials noted that continued unrest made travel unsafe, leading to soldiers being stationed to protect traders moving through Akyem. After Denkyira rebelled against Asante, Akyem provided protection to Denkyira leaders and their followers. By 1712, Akyem had taken direct action against Asante and supported displaced rulers opposed to Asante authority. Dutch observers believed that an Asante invasion of Akyem would severely disrupt trade because Akyem was regarded as an important source of gold.Tensions with Akwamu, Agona, and the coastal states
Between 1713 and 1715, Asante prepared for conflict with Akyem by seeking access to firearms, while Akyem attempted to secure weapons and trade access through negotiations with the Agona king Nyarko Eku, whose territory allowed passage to Winneba, Apam, and Senya Bereku. In 1715, Ofori of Akyem paid £800 to secure passage through Akwamu territory. When Akyem sought an alternative route through Agona, similar excessive demands were made. At the time, the Agona were allies of Akwamu, and Nyarko Eku and his chiefs refused Akyem's request. In April 1715, Assin fled with their population to Kabestera, followed by reports of a possible Akyem attack. Before the situation was confirmed, the Fante decided to support Assin, mainly because they feared Akyem would attack them next.During the crisis of 1715, Akyem leaders met with Fante chiefs at Abora and assured them that Akyem would not attack Assin or Fante territory. Akyem warned that any attack on Assin would be treated as an attack on Akyem and allowed Assin to pass safely through its territory.After negotiations failed, Akyem took military action and in October 1715 decided to fight Agona and Akwamu. By early 1716, Akyem forces were engaged in conflicts against Agona and Akwamu with assistance from Fante allies. Akyem traders arriving at the Dutch post at Crevecoeur reported that "the Akim Caboceer Apintin thinks himself strong enough to fight the Zaay of Asjanjih." In December 1715, reports from Axim stated that Amankwatia's troops and Wassa forces were called to Kumasi because "the Zaay have summoned them very urgently as the Akims are threatening the Zaay with a decisive battle."In 1716, reports from Komenda stated that the Asante ruler had taken the field with much of his army, supported by Wassa. Early in 1717, British officials at Cape Coast reported that Asante and Akyem were resolved on war with each other, and by September 1717 a decisive battle was widely expected.