Appeal to the stone
Appeal to the stone, also known as argumentum ad lapidem, is a logical fallacy that dismisses an argument as untrue or absurd. The dismissal is made by stating or reiterating that the argument is absurd, without providing further argumentation. This theory is closely tied to proof by assertion due to the lack of evidence behind the statement and its attempt to persuade without providing any evidence.
Appeal to the stone is a logical fallacy. Specifically, it is an informal fallacy, which means that it relies on inductive reasoning in an argument to justify an assertion. Informal fallacies contain erroneous reasoning in content of the argument and not the form or structure of it, as opposed to formal fallacies, which contain erroneous reasoning in argument form.
History
Origin
The name "appeal to the stone" originates from an argument between Dr. Samuel Johnson and James Boswell over George Berkeley's theory of subjective idealism. Subjective idealism states that reality is dependent on a person's perceptions of the world and that material objects are intertwined with one's perceptions of these material objects.Johnson's intent, apparently, was to imply that it was absurd of Berkeley to call such a stone "immaterial," when in fact Johnson could kick it with his foot.
Classification
Informal logical fallacies
Informal logical fallacies are misconceptions derived from faulty reasoning. Informal logical fallacies use inductive reasoning and thus can cause errors in reasoning by creating the illusion of a sound argument when it is not sound.Fallacy of irrelevance
, also known as ignoratio elenchi or missing the point, follows a similar structure to appeal to the stone. As an informal fallacy, it may not be valid or sound in its reasoning. it provides evidence towards a conclusion that has already been formed about the subject matter being debated, instead of the original subject that was being discussed. Dr. Samuel Johnson’s refutation of Bishop Berkeley’s theory of immaterialism by kicking a stone did not actually address the theory, but rather asserted a conclusion incompatible with the theory and then echoed his conclusion without discussing the subject matter of the theory of immaterialism directly.Inductive reasoning
Appeal to the stone utilizes inductive reasoning to derive its argument. Formal fallacies use deductive reasoning and formal properties to structure an argument and inductive arguments do not use this structure. Inductive reasoning is reasoning with uncertain conclusions because of inferences made about a specific situation, object, or event. Inductive arguments can be affected by the acquisition of new information or evidence that can debunk an inductive assumption.Inductive reasoning asserts that the probability of a conclusion being correct is adequate evidence to support the argument. Inductive arguments are judged on the strength or weakness of an argument and an argument's strength is subjective to each participant based on preconceptions about the subject being discussed.
The weakness of inductive reasoning, lies in the inability to gauge the validity or soundness of claims within an argument. Validity of an argument is based on whether the information presented is factual. However, if evidence presented to prove a conclusion are false, this can provide a valid argument based on false information to substantiate the conclusion. Therefore, soundness of an argument is deemed when the assumptions of an argument are factual. Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive arguments cannot prove their deductive validity and therefore lead to the problem of induction.
Structure of arguments
Arguments are typically structured by a claim being defended with reasoning and evidence. It typically consists of statements that provide premises to support a conclusion. In the case of appeal to the stone, there is an explicit conclusion but it is likely not substantiated with many premises to validate the conclusion being asserted.According to the theory of argumentation, there must be assumptions or premises that follow a method of reasoning or deduction to form the conclusion or point. An appeal to the stone's lack of evidence to substantiate the rejection of the initial claim puts the burden of proof on the other member of the argument and limits rebuttals.
Criticisms
Restricted debate
In contrast to the burden of proof, appeal to the stone does not allow for debate past the dismissal of the first claim. Therefore, the burden of proof is placed upon the person who made the initial statement to prove it is correct. However, when appeal to the stone is used to argue, there is a diminished ability for a person to create a rebuttal due to lack of elaboration on why there has been a disagreement. Additionally, the appeal to the stone technique is often paired with other logical fallacies that restrict the ability to further dialogue. Participants presenting an appeal to the stone argument may use ad-hominem attacks to avoid the discussion’s topic, or may pair it with a straw-man argument to discredit the other participant.Two systems theory
The two systems theory, by Israeli psychologist Daniel Kahneman in his book Thinking, Fast and Slow, explains the reasoning behind illogical fallacies. In the two systems theory, decision-making is categorized into system 1 and system 2. System 1 decision-making only uses quick and usually heuristic based interpretations to aid in low-engagement decisions. System 2 decision-making uses more deliberate and rational consideration when creating a conclusion.Many illogical fallacies employ quick judgement based on emotion to create conclusions in system 1 type decision-making. However, by having a skeptical mindset on one’s own conclusions and engaging in methodological thinking, one can avoid an illogical fallacy.
Toulmin's argumentation framework
As demonstrated in Toulmin’s argumentation framework, the grounds of an assumption require warrant and backing to legitimize the claim and prove the soundness of the conclusion. The framework involves a claim, grounds, warrant, qualifier, rebuttal, and backing. The initial claim of an argument is the assertion that the arguer is trying to confirm to another member in an argument. The grounds of an argument are the evidence to support the initial assertion. The warrant are the assumptions that are being used to connect the grounds to the claim. Backing is any additional supporting evidence to prove a claim and to support the warrant. Qualifiers are used to show that a claim may not always be correct to show that the claim may not always apply to every situation. Finally, a rebuttal provides another member in a discussion to propose another valid claim for the argument.In an appeal to the stone, there is only grounds and claims without providing valid warrants or backing to substantiate their claim. Furthermore, appeals to the stone typically do not use qualifiers, limiting the scope of a rebuttal. Without providing valid evidence in an appeal to the stone, it is difficult to provide a rebuttal to the claim.