Zhengde Emperor
The Zhengde Emperor, personal name Zhu Houzhao, was the 11th emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1505 to 1521. He succeeded his father, the Hongzhi Emperor.
The Zhengde Emperor was the eldest and only surviving son of the Hongzhi Emperor. As heir to the throne, he received a Confucian education and was known for his intelligence during his studies. However, upon taking power, it became evident that he had a strong aversion to the Confucian-oriented bureaucracy and rejected the rituals and duties associated with it. He frequently clashed with ministers and grand secretaries, instead relying on eunuchs, particularly the "Eight Tigers", with whom he had grown up. From 1506 to 1510, the eunuch Liu Jin effectively controlled the government, appointing his allies and supporters to important positions. The Emperor even moved out of the Forbidden City to the newly built "Leopard Quarter" where he surrounded himself with eunuchs and officers. After Liu Jin's downfall, the actor Zang Xian and officers Qian Ning and Jiang Bin became the Emperor's favorites, while Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe managed the general administration.
Liu Jin's administration was marked by high tax pressure and a decline in the government's authority, which ultimately led to multiple large-scale rebellions. These included the Prince of Anhua rebellion, the rebellion of 1510, and the Prince of Ning rebellion, the last of which was eventually quelled by the neo-Confucian philosopher Wang Yangming. Looking for new sources of income, the Emperor and eunuchs lifted the ban on private foreign trade. This coincided with the arrival of Portuguese sailors in southern China, who began trading with Chinese partners.
In 1517, the Emperor spent the majority of his time on the Sino-Mongol border northwest of Beijing, primarily in the garrison town of Datong. During this time, he successfully repelled a major Mongol raid led by Dayan Khan. In 1519, he traveled to Nanjing, remaining there for most of 1520. On his return journey, he fell into the water while drunk and became ill. He died a few months later, leaving no children. Yang Tinghe, with the support of the deceased emperor's mother, Empress Dowager Zhang, placed his closest male relative, his thirteen-year-old cousin Zhu Houcong, on the throne.
Youth and accession
Zhu Houzhao, the future Zhengde Emperor, was born on 14 November 1491 as the eldest son of the Hongzhi Emperor and Empress Zhang. In 1492, his father named him heir to the throne. The Hongzhi Emperor saw himself in his son and took Zhu Houzhao with him when he traveled, supporting his interests in riding and archery, and pampering him. Zhu Houzhao was an excellent student, fulfilling his duties with care and courtesy.The Hongzhi Emperor died on 8 June 1505. On his deathbed, he called upon his closest aides, grand secretaries Liu Jian, Li Dongyang, and Xie Qian, to faithfully serve his son. He assessed Zhu Houzhao as an intelligent young man, but also fond of comfort and pleasure. Therefore, he asked the grand secretaries to guide his son.
On 19 June 1505, Zhu Houzhao ascended the throne as the tenth Ming emperor. His era name, Zhengde, comes from a quote from the Book of Documents and means "the rectification of the people's virtue ".
Style of government
Upon ascending to the throne, the Zhengde Emperor was confronted with three major issues that had been passed down to him: insufficient state revenue, a vulnerable military presence on the northwestern border with the Mongols, and conflicts between the imperial eunuchs and officials regarding problem-solving methods. The Emperor tended to side with the eunuchs, disregarding the counsel of the grand secretaries. This disagreement between the ruler and his officials was partly due to a generational gap, as the Zhengde Emperor was young and the youngest grand secretary was fifty-six years old.In contrast to his father, who exercised imperial authority sparingly, delegated power effectively, and dutifully fulfilled his responsibilities, the Zhengde Emperor showed little concern for state affairs. His restless spirit rebelled against official orthodoxy and he disregarded the meticulously prescribed ceremonial and ritual duties of an emperor. He resisted the objections and demands of officials, but readily fulfilled the requests and desires of the eunuchs. In the early years of his reign, he actively avoided official audiences and discussions on Confucian topics. This behavior was seen as a major concern for the Confucian-minded bureaucracy, as they believed that a monarch who adhered to all ceremonies, precedents, and duties was crucial for the functioning of the state. However, the Zhengde Emperor had a wide range of other interests, including riding, archery, hunting, and music. He was particularly fond of composing songs and singing, and he promoted music throughout the court. He also enjoyed playing games with his eunuchs, leading to the establishment of several imperial shops run by them. He supported various forms of entertainment, such as wrestling, acrobatics, magic, and fireworks. He often indulged in these activities with the eunuchs, neglecting his studies and getting drunk for days on end. He even refused to attend to state affairs, much to the dismay of the officials. In fact, he would often roam the streets of Beijing incognito in search of entertainment, causing great consternation among the officials.
One year after his accession, the Zhengde Emperor married an officer's daughter, Lady Xia, as his empress. He also took two other girls as consorts. However, he soon stopped living with the Empress. At the suggestion of Yu Yong, a guard officer in Embroidered Uniform Guard who was of Central Asian origin, he summoned Uyghur dancers. His unrestrained behavior regularly shocked Confucian moralists, but it also made him famous in popular folklore.
Like his grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor, the Zhengde Emperor was drawn to Lamaism. He built a new temple for Tibetan monks in the Forbidden City and awarded them high titles and rewards. He also learned their script and participated in their ceremonies, even dressing in Tibetan clothing. He involved them in the rituals at the funeral of the Chenghua Emperor's widow, Grand Empress Dowager Wang, in 1518.
The Emperor held a negative view of officials, viewing them as corrupt and incompetent. As a result, he entrusted state affairs to eunuchs, appointing them to military and financial positions from the beginning of his reign. He actively avoided interacting with officials and instead relied on eunuchs to handle matters, as they never questioned his orders. He also valued their intelligence and entrusted them with supervising the armies on the borders and quelling rebellions within the country. They were also responsible for overseeing the production of silk and porcelain goods, as well as managing regional authorities. The Emperor generously rewarded them for their services, often granting their relatives aristocratic titles.
The Emperor's financial irresponsibility worsened the already dire state of state finances. While the Ministry of Revenue theoretically brought in 1.5 million liang in silver, the actual amount was much lower due to tax remissions and arrears. In the first year of his reign, the Emperor spent 1.4 million liang on donations and rewards, disregarding the advice of conservative officials who urged austerity. The eunuchs, on the other hand, were resourceful in finding new sources of revenue, such as transit taxes, taxes on pastures and wastelands, and levies on imperial estates. This further strengthened the Emperor's support for the eunuchs.
Court under Liu Jin
Concerned about the Emperor's actions and the influence of the eunuchs, a group of high officials, led by grand secretaries Liu Jian and Xie Qian, formed an alliance with prominent eunuchs. They accused the eunuchs in the Emperor's inner circle, known as the "Eight Tigers", who had been promoted in 1505, of wrongdoing. The officials demanded that Liu Jin be executed and the others punished. The eunuchs, feeling threatened by the rise of the "Eight Tigers", initially only wanted Liu Jin to be transferred to the south, but on 27 October 1506, the Minister of Revenue, Han Wen, petitioned for the execution of all eight. The Emperor refused, but agreed to punish them. However, at the last minute, the "Eight Tigers" convinced the Emperor that their accusers were conspiring against them in an attempt to gain power. Enraged, the Emperor exiled the eunuchs who had allied with Liu Jian and Xie Qian and promoted the "Eight Tigers". Liu Jian, Xie Qian, and others were forced to resign, while Li Dongyang remained in the Grand Secretariat, joined by Jiao Fang, an ally of Liu Jin who had warned him of the accusations, and other allies of the "Eight Tigers".From October 1506 to September 1510, the eunuch-official alliance, led by Liu Jin, dominated the court. During the initial months of his rule, Liu Jin eliminated his opponents from the Beijing authorities. In December 1506, Han Wen was dismissed due to accusations of abuse of power, and in February 1507, twenty-one officials who protested against the resignation of the grand secretaries were punished. Other officials were beaten, tortured, and dismissed. By the summer of 1507, Liu Jin had complete control over the government, and no important documents were approved without his consent.
So far, the Emperor has been spending without any restrictions. In September 1507, he paid 350 thousand liang of silver just for the lanterns for the Lantern Festival. Additionally, the buildings in the imperial park south of Beijing were rebuilt, and he even built the "Leopard Quarter" northwest of the Forbidden City. As a result, Liu Jin focused on increasing the Emperor's income. He used the threat of heavy fines to force the officials responsible for finances and taxes to bring in the exact amount of money to Beijing. This caused great concern among government officials, as he also demanded levies and supplies from officials on the northern border and Beijing, which left their families impoverished. Furthermore, his agents extorted additional silver payments from mines in Fujian and Sichuan, and even organized illegal sales of salt beyond the quotas. When officials arrested them, they were arrested themselves.
The influence of the eunuchs continued to grow, as evidenced by the fact that in March 1507, the eunuch intendants in the provinces were granted equal status to the leading provincial officials. This gave them the authority to handle administrative and legal matters. Liu Jin attempted to reorganize the administration of the empire based on the principle of equality or even subordination of civilian and military officials to eunuchs. These reforms sparked strong opposition from officials, who were forced to comply through brutal terror. Liu Jin also faced hostility from other eunuchs, including the remaining seven "Tigers". In response, he established a new agency to investigate the resistance among the eunuchs.
While Liu Jin focused on governing the state, the Emperor indulged in the pleasures of the new "Leopard Quarter", surrounded by flattering eunuchs, officers, musicians, lamas, and beauties. The Emperor had particular favorites, including Qian Ning, an officer of the "Embroidered Uniformed Guards" known for his strength and archery skills, and actor Zang Xian, who was appointed deputy director of the Music Bureau for his musical talent. These favorites held significant influence over many officials and office seekers.