Voldemarininkai
The voldemarininkai were a group of supporters of Augustinas Voldemaras, former Prime Minister of Lithuania, active from 1929 to 1941 in Lithuania. The group stemmed from the militarized Iron Wolf organization established in 1927 to help suppress opponents of President Antanas Smetona and Prime Minister Voldemaras. When Voldemaras was ousted in September 1929, the Iron Wolf was closed but its members continued to be loyal to Voldemaras and became known as voldemarininkai. Many of them were officers in the Lithuanian Army. Voldemarininkai effectively became the third major opposition force to Smetona's regime.
In 1929–1940, voldemarininkai planned eight coups against Smetona. The largest and most threatening attempt was on 6–7 June 1934. Voldemarininkai became more active again after Lithuania accepted the Polish ultimatum of March 1938. They increasingly sympathized and collaborated with Nazi Germany. After the German occupation of Lithuania in June 1941, voldemarininkai reestablished Iron Wolf and gained control of the Lithuanian police and the Lithuanian TDA Battalion, which participated in the Holocaust and killed about 26,000 Jews between July and December 1941.
Background
The democratically elected government of Lithuania was deposed during the military coup d'état of December 1926. It was replaced by the government of President Antanas Smetona and Prime Minister Augustinas Voldemaras. After two unsuccessful counter-coups in 1927, the new government felt insecure and established the militarized Iron Wolf organization to help the new regime fight its opponents. It was inspired by the Blackshirts, an Italian fascist organization loyal to Benito Mussolini. By June 1929, it grew to 4,164 members, of which 56% had served in the military.Iron Wolf was loyal to Voldemaras and there were rumors that he might use it to oust Smetona. However, Smetona acted first and removed Voldemaras as Prime Minister on 19 September 1929. Iron Wolf split into two – those loyal to Smetona and those loyal to Voldemaras. Several most active members of Iron Wolf were exiled from Kaunas to the province. After his dismissal, Voldemaras gave interviews to the opposition press and made vague hints about plans to return to power. On 30 November 1929, the office of the Supreme Staff of Iron Wolf was bombed, giving Smetona an impetus for a full-scale prosecution of Voldemaras supporters. By early 1930, about 60 supporters of Voldemaras were dismissed from government or military jobs, about 100 demoted, and 67 deported to the province. Iron Wolf's newspaper Tautos kelias was closed. Therefore, voldemarininkai started organizing clandestine cells that were most active in Samogitia. Smetona and his supporters attempted to reorganize remaining loyal members of Iron Wolf, but the organization was in total disarray and was officially closed on 24 May 1930.
Anti-government plots in 1930
Coup plans
The State Security Department collected information on voldemarininkai activities. According to a report by Augustinas Povilaitis, they planned an anti-Smetona coup already in November 1929, but they fell apart because Petras Kubiliūnas, the Chief of the General Staff of Lithuania, refused to support it. The coup was planned for early July when Smetona and his wife were visiting Lipová-lázně resort in Czechoslovakia.Another coup was planned in June 1930 to take place on 24 July 1930. One of the key conspirators was aviation captain. The plans called for 300–400 voldemarinnkai to march to President Smetona and demand the reinstatement of Voldemaras as Prime Minister. General Povilas Plechavičius later testified that he was offered to lead the coup but he refused. When the coup failed, Voldemaras was forcibly exiled to Plateliai on 24 July 1930.
Voldemarininkai then planned another coup during the traditional celebration of Grand Duchess Birutė in Palanga on 15 August 1930. Soldiers of the 7th Infantry Regiment from Klaipėda were to arrest Smetona on his way to the festivities. However, Smetona was warned in time and remained in Kaunas. The celebrations were instead attended by the First Lady Sofija Smetonienė and several government ministers.
Attempted assassination of Steponas Rusteika
, chief of the criminal police who exiled Voldemaras and warned Smetona not to travel to Palanga, became the next target of voldemarininkai. Rusteika was a member of Iron Wolf but remained loyal to Smetona and therefore, in the eyes of voldemarininkai, he was a traitor who deserved a death penalty. An attempt on his life was made on 19 August 1930 by Julius Vaitkevičius and Antanas Pupaleigis. Rusteika was hit in the head by a revolver and stabbed, but escaped with relatively minor injuries.The government then arrested Voldemaras and 24 of his most active supporters. Their trial started on 17 August and continued to 31 August 1931. Only three defendants received prison sentences; Rusteika's attackers Vaitkevičius and Pupaleigis received 15 and 12 years, respectively, and captain Juozas Gineitis received one year. Voldemaras was acquitted, while others received mostly suspended prison sentences. After six years in prison, Vaitkevičius received presidential pardon and was released from prison.
Attempted coup in June 1934
Coup background
After the failed attempts in 1930 and the trial in 1931, voldemarininkai were relatively quiet until 1934. Voldemaras lived in exile while the most prominent voldemarininkai were vigilantly followed by the police. Nevertheless, voldemarininkai began returning from internal exile and reestablishing their contacts with the military. Many of the younger officers supported Voldemaras. even managed to reestablish voldemarininkai newspaper Tautos kelias. In February 1934, Voldemaras published an article in Tautos balsas criticizing the government policies in the Klaipėda Region and worsening relations with Nazi Germany. For this article, Voldemaras faced trial which was to convene on 12 June 1934.During the night of 6 to 7 June 1934, military officers stationed in Kaunas began the coup. About 100 officers and 500–700 soldiers participated. The men captured several strategic objects and sent a delegation to Smetona to negotiate the replacement of Prime Minister Juozas Tūbelis with Voldemaras. Smetona was supported by some of the officers and refused to negotiate. He could agree to some government changes but flatly refused to consider Voldemaras' return, calling him a "political bandit". Lacking resolve, the soldiers returned to their barracks.
Coup aftermath
Voldemaras, although there is no evidence that he was involved in planning the coup, was sentenced to 12 years in prison. He was released in 1938 on the condition that he would depart Lithuania. Five people, including Petras Kubiliūnas, were sentenced to death by a military tribunal presided by Edvardas Adamkavičius. However, Smetona commuted the sentences to imprisonment and all five were released in 1937. In total, 111 officers faced disciplinary action. However, the government supported the dismissed officers and helped them find new employment. The government was afraid that financial difficulties would only push the disgraced officers into various anti-government organizations.Smetona replaced the key military commanders by those who demonstrated loyalty during the coup of those with personal connection to Smetona. The new commanders more closely monitored soldiers' moods and tried to root out any kind of politicking. Prime Minister Juozas Tūbelis tended his resignation, but Smetona did not accept it. Instead, a new cabinet of ministers was installed on 12 June 1934. The new government retained the Prime Minister and Minister of Finance Tūbelis, Minister of Internal Affairs, and Minister of Agriculture Jonas Pranas Aleksa.
Coup plans in 1934–1935
Supporters of Voldemaras attempted to stage two other coups in 1934, one in August and October. The coup in August was organized by junior officers, who, in addition to the political demands of returning Voldemaras to power, wanted to improve economic and social conditions of junior officers. The coup was discovered before it began and eight men were tried. Seven of them received prison sentences ranging from 2 to 15 years. However, the government did take steps to improve the economic conditions.In October 1934, voldemarininkai planned to free imprisoned comrades from Kaunas Prison and use force to overthrow the government. Again, the plan was discovered and organizers received prison sentences from 4 to 12 years. Reportedly, this attempt was organized by the State Security Department to identify active members and leaders of voldemarininkai.
Voldemarininkai attempted to stage another coup in December 1935. It was also discovered and liquidated before it began. On 19 January 1936, three of its organizers received death sentences, but they received presidential pardons and their sentences were commuted to life imprisonment. However, all three were released in 1938. Other four coup organizers received prison sentences from 8 to 15 years, while two were acquitted.
Anti-Smetona coalition
Axis
As tensions were rising in Europe and Lithuania received an ultimatum from Poland in March 1938, anti-Smetona opposition became more active and began to coalesce. Voldemarininkai became more active as well and started planning another coup, but they were quickly discovered. Members of the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party and Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union formed an informal coalition known as Axis. By November 1938, thanks to the efforts of, Christian Democrats and Popular Peasants agreed on a joint platform and searched for ways to publicize it. They decided to publish newspaper Žygis in the Klaipėda Region as there was no government censorship in the region. Members of this effort became known as žyginingai after the newspaper. Around this time, voldemarininkai joined the Axis and Algirdas Sliesoraitis, former head of Iron Wolf, agreed to move to Klaipėda. Many members of the Axis were reluctant to ally with voldemarininkai but felt that they needed some military force in case things turned violent.According to, Smetona tried to appease voldemarininkai when two ministers sympathetic to voldemarininkai causes were selected for the new cabinet on 5 December 1938. On 10 December, Axis organized student protests in Kaunas and Klaipėda. Students, agitated by and Leonas Prapuolenis, called for a general strike. There were hopes that the strike would grow into a wider civil unrest and that voldemarininkai could rally the military. However, in Kaunas, where the government had greater control, the strike was quickly extinguished. In Klaipėda, strikers held out until mid-January 1939. Leonas Bistras and were arrested and sent to a few months of internal exile.