Vishishtadvaita


Vishishtadvaita is a school of Hindu philosophy belonging to the Vedanta tradition. Vishishta Advaita means "non-duality with distinctions" and recognises Brahman as the primordial quality while also acknowledging its existential multiplicity. This philosophy can be characterised as a form of qualified monism, or a qualified non-dualism. It upholds the belief that all diversity ultimately stems from a fundamental underlying unity.
According to Vishishtadvaita vedanta, Vishnu is Brahman, Supreme Lord, Supreme Person and has noble attributes such as omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, and omnibenevolence. The universe depends upon God for its being as well as for its qualities.
Ramanuja, the 11–12th century philosopher and the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy, contends that the Prasthanatrayi, namely the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras are to be interpreted in a way that shows this unity in diversity, for any other way would violate their consistency. Vedanta Desika, another major scholar who significantly helped expand the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita, defines Vishishtadvaita using the statement, Aseṣa Chit-Achit Prakāram Brahmaikameva Tatvam : Brahman, as qualified by the sentient and insentient modes, is the Ultimate reality.

History

The earliest Vishishtadvaita works are no longer available. However, the earliest philosophers who are thought to have developed the system are named in Ramanuja's Vedarthasamgraha: Bodhayana, Dramida, Tanka, Guhadeva, Kapardi, and Bharuci.
Bodhayana is considered to have written an extensive vritti on the Purva and Uttara Mimamsas. Tanka is attributed with having written commentaries on Chandogya Upanishad and Brahma Sutras. Nathamuni of the ninth century AD, the foremost Acharya of the Vaishnavas, collected the Tamil prabandhas, classified them, made the redaction, set the hymns to music, and spread them everywhere. He is said to have received the divine hymns straight from Nammalvar, the foremost of the twelve Alvars, by yogic insight in the temple at Alwar Thirunagari, which is located near Tirunelveli in South India. Yamunacharya renounced kingship and spent his last days in the service of the deity at Srirangam and in laying the fundamentals of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy by writing four basic works on the subject.
Ramanuja is the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy. Ramanuja continues along the line of thought of his predecessors while expounding the knowledge expressed in the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. Vedanta Desika and Pillai Lokacharya, disciples in the tradition of Ramanuja, had minor disagreements not on the philosophy, but on some aspects of the theology, giving rise to the Vadakalai and Tenkalai schools of thought.

Etymology

Viśiṣṭa means most exclusive.

Key principles

There are three key principles of Vishishtadvaita:
  • Tattva: The knowledge of the three real entities, namely jiva, ajiva and Ishvara.
  • Hita: The means of realisation, as through bhakti and prapatti
  • Purushartha: The goal to be attained, as moksha or liberation from bondage.

    Epistemology

Pramanas

Pramana refers to factual knowledge obtained through reasoning of any object.
In Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, only the following three pramanas are accepted as valid means of knowledge:
  • Pratyaksa — knowledge gained through perception. Perception in this context generally refers to sensory perception. In modern-day usage, this will also include knowledge obtained by means of observation through scientific instruments, since they are considered an extension of perception.
  • Anumana — knowledge gained through inference. Inference refers to deductive reasoning and analysis.
  • Shabda — knowledge gained by means of shruti. Shruti refers to knowledge gained from scriptures—primarily the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.

    Rules of epistemology

There are three rules of hierarchy when there is apparent conflict between the three modes of acquiring knowledge:
  • Shabda or Shruti, Pramana occupies the highest position in matters which cannot be settled or resolved by pratyaksa or by anumana.
  • Anumana occupies the next position. When an issue cannot be settled through sensory perception alone, it is settled based on inference, that is, whichever is the more logical argument.
  • When pratyaksa yields a definitive position on a particular issue, such a perception cannot be ignored by interpreting Shabda in a way that violates that perception.

    Metaphysics

Ontology

Vishishtadvaita ontology outlines three entities: Chit, achit, and Ishvara :

Chit

In Vishishtadvaita, chit is synonymous with jiva and atman. Chit includes all beings with sentience, consciousness, and individual self-awareness. A jiva has both knowledge as its nature and is a knower. This is likened to a flame which illuminates itself and other objects. It is similar to the Purusha of Samkhya system.
There are three types of jivas:
  1. Nitya: eternally free jivas who were never bound in samsara
  2. Mukta: jivas previously in samsara, but now free
  3. Baddha: ''jivas bound in samsara
Characteristics of the jiva'' include:
  • Being indivisible.
  • Being the agent of action and enjoyer of its results
  • Being infinite in number and different from each other

    Achit

is the world of insentient entities as denoted by matter or, more specifically, the non-conscious Universe. It is similar to the Prakriti of the Samkhya system.
There are three achit entities.
  1. Prakrti: primordial cosmic matter and everything that evolves from it. For example, the material world.
  2. Nitya-vibhuti: transcendental spiritual universe
  3. Kala: time

    Ishvara

is the Supreme Cosmic Spirit who maintains complete control over the Universe and all the sentient beings, which together also form the pan-organistic body of Ishvara. The triad of Ishvara, along with the universe and the sentient beings, is Brahman, which signifies the completeness of existence. Ishvara is Parabrahman endowed with innumerable auspicious qualities. Ishvara is perfect, omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, the creator of the universe, its active ruler, and also its eventual destroyer. He is causeless, eternal, and unchangeable—and is yet the material and the efficient cause of the universe and sentient beings. He is both immanent and transcendent. He is the subject of worship. He is the basis of morality and the giver of the fruits of one's Karma. He rules the world with His Maya—His divine power.
Antaryamin
The inner controller is the thread connecting everything, governing this world, the next, and all beings from within.

"He who inhabits water, yet is within water, whom water does not know, whose body water is and who controls water from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal."
"He who inhabits the sun, yet is within the sun, whom the sun does not know, whose body the sun is and who controls the sun from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal" — Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.7.4–14
Brahman
There is a subtle difference between Ishvara and Brahman. Ishvara is the substantive part of Brahman, while Jivas and jagat are its modes, and kalyana-gunas are the primary attributes. The secondary attributes become manifested in the effect state when the world is differentiated by name and form. The kalyana-gunas are eternally manifest.
Brahman is the description of Ishvara when comprehended in fullness—i.e., a simultaneous vision of Ishvara with all his modes and attributes.
Cit and acit are completely dependent on Brahman. The following examples illustrate the relationship between Brahman and jivas:
  • sharira/shariri ;
  • dravya/guna ;
  • aṃsi/aṃsa ;
  • visayi/visaya ;
  • angi/angā ;
These relationships can be experienced holding Brahman as the father, son, mother, sister, wife, husband, friend, lover and lord. Hence, Brahman is a personal being.
Ramanuja argues vehemently against understanding Brahman as one without attributes. Brahman is Nirguna in the sense that impure qualities do not touch it. He provides three valid reasons for making such a claim:
Shruti/Shabda Pramana: All shrutis and shabdas denoting Brahman always list either attributes inherent to Brahman or not inherent to Brahman. The shrutis only seek to deny Brahman from possessing impure and defective qualities, which affect the world of beings. There is evidence in the shrutis in this regard. The shrutis proclaim Brahman to be beyond the tri-gunas, which are observed. However, Brahman possesses an infinite number of transcendental attributes, the evidence of which is given in vakhyas like "satyam jnanam anantam Brahma".
Pratyaksha Pramana: Ramanuja states that "a contentless cognition is impossible". And all cognition must necessarily involve knowing Brahman through the attributes of Brahman.
Anumana Pramana: Ramanuja states that "Nirgunatva" itself becomes an attribute of Brahman on account of the uniqueness of no other entity being Nirguna.
Ramanuja had simplified the relationship between Brahman and soul. According to him, though the soul is an integral part of Brahman, it has independent existence.

Causality

Like the Samkhya system, Vishishtadvaita upholds the theory of Satkaryavada as opposed to Asatkaryavada. Per satkaryavada, effects are not new entities, but modifications of the cause.
The Vishishtadvaita theory is called Brahma-parinama-vada, with "parinama-vada" meaning the evolution of the effect from the cause. Brahman is both the cause and the effect, but the underlying entity is the same in all forms.
Brahman is assigned two :
  1. — Being the Efficient/ Instrumental cause. For example, a goldsmith is assigned as he acts as the maker of jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery's Instrumental cause.
  2. — Being the material cause. For example, the gold is assigned as it acts as the material of the jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery's material cause.
According to Vishishtadvaita, the Universe and Sentients always exist. However, they begin from a subtle state and transform. The subtle state is called a causal state, while the transformed state is called the effect state. The causal state is when Brahman is internally not distinguishable by name and form.
It can be said that Vishishtadvaita follows Brahma-Prakara-Parinama Vada. That is to say, it is the modes of Brahman which is under evolution. The cause and effect only refer to the pan-organistic body transformation. Brahman, as the Universal Self, is unchanging and eternal.
Brahman, having the subtle chit and achit entities as his Śarīra/Prakāra before manifestation, is the same Brahman having the expanded chit and achit entities as Śarīra/Prakāra after manifestation.