History of Christian universalism
The doctrine of Christian universalism has been rejected by most mainstream Christian churches, which tend to maintain at least the possibility that many will not be saved, but it has received support from many prestigious Christian thinkers as well as many groups of Christians. It has been argued that the Bible itself has a variety of verses that seem to support a plurality of views.
Universal salvation may be related to the perception of a problem of Hell, standing opposed to ideas such as endless torment in Hell, but may also include a period of finite punishment similar to a state of purgatory. Believers in universal reconciliation may believe that while there is a real "Hell" of some kind it is neither a place of endless suffering nor a place where the spirits of human beings are ultimately "annihilated" after enduring the just amount of divine retribution.
Universalists espouse various theological beliefs concerning the process or state of salvation, but all adhere to the view that salvation history concludes with the reconciliation of the entire human race to God. Many adherents assert that the suffering and crucifixion of Jesus Christ constitute the mechanism that provides redemption for all humanity and atonement for all sins.
Modern Unitarian Universalism emerged in part from the Universalist Church but, being a non-credal faith, it holds no official doctrinal positions. Universal reconciliation, however, remains a popular viewpoint among many of its congregations and individual believers, including many who have not associated with the Universalist Church.
Biblical background
As David Fisher, a bishop and professor of philosophy has put it, "In the final analysis, the question of salvation is always an inquiry into the balancing of human free will with God's mercy and forgiveness." The Bible itself has, as referred to before, a variety of verses on the subject that appear to be contradictory if not given additional reader interpretation. Influential theologians Emil Brunner and J.A.T. Robinson argue that these verses can be put into two distinct categories: damnation for some or eventual reconciliation for all.According to biblical scholar David Sim, Paul does not seem to believe in an eternal hell but rather annihilationism, while Matthew does.
As well, the Epistle to the Colossians receives attention, with Colossians 1:17–20 reading:
Development of universalist arguments
Broadly speaking, most historical advocates of Christian universalism throughout the years did so from the perspective of accepting the traditional Biblical canon as divinely inspired and without transcription error but rejecting strict Biblical literalism, practicing detailed exegesis of the texts. The advocates have argued that the apparent contradiction between Bible verses that describe God eventually reconciling humanity to goodness with those that describe damnation to most of humanity is that threats of long-term punishment function just as threats, not necessarily as predictions of future events, that will not be actually carried out. Advocates have also argued that suffering of sinners in hell or hell-like states will be long but still limited, not eternal.However, liberal and progressive Christians have often argued that the teachings of the historical Jesus did not mention exclusive salvation for a select few and have altogether rejected many sections of the Bible written by figures decades after the life of Jesus as man-made inventions that are to be taken with a grain of salt.
While not being a universalist per se, influential Christian philosopher Karl Barth, often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the twentieth century, spoke for a great deal of broadly traditional Christians when he wrote that salvation is centrally Christological. He asserted that in Jesus Christ, the reconciliation of all of mankind to God has essentially already taken place and that through Christ man is already elect and justified. Therefore, eternal salvation for everyone, even those that reject God, is a possibility that is more than an open question but should be hoped for by Christians as a matter of grace.
Responses
One recurrent objection to universalism made by many has been that having a deep-rooted belief in eternal torment as a possibility is a necessary deterrent from living an immoral life.Universalists have often responded that punishments for sin can function well without being eternal, especially in the afterlife when one can face severe treatment first before one eventually gets to heaven.
History
Early Christianity
According to Edward Beecher and George T. Knight, in the first 600 years of Christian history there were six main theological schools: four of them were universalist, one taught annihilationism and the last taught endless torment. Marcion, a second-century heretic, formulated universalistic theories about God. But many early Church Fathers have been quoted as either embracing or hoping for the ultimate reconciliation of all creatures with God as well. The concept of a final restoration of all souls had large appeal particularly in the East during the fourth and fifth centuries. Even in the West at that time, according to St. Augustine of Hippo, "very many" refused to believe in the eternal punishment and softened the harder statements of Holy Scripture by interpreting them as non-literal threats and invoking passages speaking of mercy, and St. Jerome wrote that "many" believed that even the devil "will repent and be restored to his former place."Alexandria
The most important school of Universalist thought was the Didascalium in Alexandria, Egypt, which was founded by Saint Pantaenus in about 190. Alexandria was the centre of learning and intellectual discourse in the ancient Mediterranean world, and it was the theological centre of gravity of Christianity prior to the rise of the Roman Church.Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215)
The Universalists Hosea Ballou, Thomas Whittemore, John Wesley Hanson and George T. Knight claimed that Clement of Alexandria expressed universalist positions in early Christianity. Such claims have always been controversial. Some scholars believe that Clement used the term apokatastasis to refer primarily to the restoration of a select few, but with universal implications. Brian E. Daley writes that Clement viewed "punishment after death as a medicinal and therefore temporary measure" and that he suggested "with great caution the related prospect of universal salvation for all intelligent creatures", for example in his Stromateis, Book VII, Chapter 2.Image:Origen.jpg|thumb|Origen, traditionally considered a 3rd-century proponent of Universal Reconciliation
Origen (c. 185 – 254)
According to Daley, Origen was firmly convinced that "all human souls will ultimately be saved" and "united to God forever in loving contemplation" and that this is "an indispensable part of the 'end' promised by Paul in I Cor 15.24–28." Daley also notes that Origen sometimes called this final state of universal salvation ἀποκατάστασις and suggested it was already a familiar concept to his readers.Frederick W. Norris maintained, however, that Origen may not have strongly believed in universal reconciliation at all. In an article on apokatastasis in The Westminster Handbook to Origen he wrote, "As far as we can tell, therefore, Origen never decided to stress exclusive salvation or universal salvation, to the strict exclusion of either case." However, it must be noted that Origen explicitly stated that universal salvation hould be taught to the masses even if it is true, because only the very wise can abstain from sin without the threat of eternal consequences, and that his deliberate ambiguity may have been deliberate and does not necessarily entail a lack of conviction that a universal restoration will take place.
Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – 390s)
, who was declared "the father of fathers" by the Seventh Ecumenical Council, is interpreted by many scholars as a proponent of universal salvationGregory stated, "when death approaches to life, and darkness to light, and the corruptible to the incorruptible, the inferior is done away with and reduced to non-existence, and the thing purged is benefited, just as the dross is purged from gold by fire. In the same way in the long circuits of time, when the evil of nature which is now mingled and implanted in them has been taken away, whensoever the restoration to their old condition of the things that now lie in wickedness takes place, there will be a unanimous thanksgiving from the whole creation, both of those who have been punished in the purification and of those who have not at all needed purification."
6th century – Ecumenical condemnation of universalism?
Apokatastasis was interpreted by 19th-century Universalists such as Hosea Ballou to be the same as the beliefs of the Universalist Church of America. However, until the middle of the 6th century, the word had a broader meaning. While it applied to a number of doctrines regarding salvation, it also referred to a return to both a location and an original condition. Thus, the Greek word's application was originally broad and metaphorical. Many heteroclite views became associated with Origen, and the 15 anathemas against him attributed to the Second Council of Constantinople condemned a form of apokatastasis, along with the pre-existence of the soul, animism, a heterodox Christology, and a denial of real and lasting resurrection of the body. Some authorities believe that the anathemas belong to an earlier local synod.The New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia claims that the Fifth Ecumenical Council was contested as being an official and authorized Ecumenical Council since it was established not by the Pope but the Emperor since the Pope resisted it. The Fifth Ecumenical Council addressed what was called "The Three Chapters" and was against a form of Origenism that had nothing to do with Origen and Origenist views. Popes Vigilius, Pelagius I, Pelagius II, and Gregory the Great were aware only that the Fifth Council specifically dealt with the Three Chapters, and they neither mentioned Origenism or Universalism and nor spoke as if they knew of its condemnation even though Gregory the Great was opposed to the belief of universalism. Scholar Richard Bauckham stated that while universalism appeared "discredited" because of scholarly resistance to Origen's view, it "seems in doubt" if the Fifth Ecumenical Council specifically endorsed any negative view of it.