Ultras
Ultras are a type of association football fans who are known for their fanatical support. The term originated in Italy, but is used worldwide to describe predominantly organised fans of association football teams. The behavioural tendency of ultras groups includes singing football chants, playing musical instruments such as drums, their use of flares and smoke bombs, frequent use of elaborate displays, vocal support in large groups and the displaying of flags and banners at football stadiums, all of which are designed to create an atmosphere which encourages their own team and intimidates the opposing players and their supporters. These groups also commonly organise trips to attend away games.
Ultras groups have been responsible for many cases of football hooliganism and violence, although differently from hooligan firms, ultras do not have the explicit objective of fighting other fans. Ultras groups are also in some cases directly linked to ideologies like neo-Nazism and other forms of far-right politics, and sometimes far-left politics. In some instances, hooliganism and/or this politicisation goes to the point where support for their team is relegated to a secondary feature of the phenomenon.
In recent decades, the culture has become a focal point for the movement against the commercialisation of sports and football in particular. Ultras also have regional variants and analogues, such as casuals in the United Kingdom, barra bravas in Hispanic America, and torcidas organizadas in Brazil.
History
The origin of the ultras movement is disputed, with many supporters groups from various countries making claims solely on the basis of their dates of foundation. The level of dispute and confusion is aided by a contemporary tendency to categorise all groups of overtly fanatical supporters as ultras. The first group of fans was found in Salerno, Italy in 1921 with the name "circolo salernitani fieri", later in Florence in 1931 when some Fiorentina fans created the group called "ordine del marzocco", which with a large following, composed hymns, distributed flags and stage material and set up special trains to follow the team. Supporters groups of a nature comparable to the ultras have been present in Brazil since 1939, when the first torcida organizada was formed. Inspired by the torcidas and the colourful scenes of the 1950 World Cup, supporters of Hajduk Split formed Torcida Split on 28 October 1950. But the first supporters' groups in the world formed to produce violence were barras bravas, originated in Argentina in the 1950s.File:Torcida Jovem RQI.jpg|thumb|Torcida Jovem of Santos in Brazil. An example of a Brazilian Torcida Organizada
One country closely associated with the ultras movement is Italy. The first Italian ultras groups were formed in 1951, including the Fedelissimi Granata of Torino. The 1960s saw the continuing spread and development of the culture with the formation of the Fossa dei Leoni and Boys San groups, the former often regarded in Italy as the first full-fledged ultras group. The term "ultras" was used as a name for the first time in 1969, when supporters of Sampdoria formed the Ultras Tito Cucchiaroni and fans of Torino formed the Ultras Granata. The style of support that would become synonymous with Italian football developed most during the 1970s, as more groups formed, including the radical S.S. Lazio Ultras in 1974, with a strong predominance of fascist slogans and chants amongst other groups such as Hellas Verona supporters. The active support of the ultras became more apparent, in contrast with the "traditional" culture, choreographic displays, signature banners and symbols, giant flags, drums and fireworks became the norm as groups aimed to take their support to higher levels. The decade also saw the violence and unrest of Italian society at the time overlap with the ultras movement, adding a dimension that has plagued it ever since. The ultras movement spread across Europe, Australia, Asia and North Africa during the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, starting with the countries geographically closest to Italy.
Characteristics
Ultras groups are usually centred on a core group of founders or leaders, with smaller subgroups organised by location, friendship or political stance. Ultras tend to use various styles and sizes of banners and flags bearing the name and symbols of their group. Some ultras groups sell their own merchandise to raise funds for performing displays. An ultras group can number from a handful of fans to hundreds or thousands, with larger groups often claiming entire sections of a stadium for themselves. Ultras groups often have a representative who liaises with the club owners on a regular basis, mostly regarding tickets, seat allocations and storage facilities. Some clubs provide groups with cheaper tickets, storage rooms for flags and banners and early access to the stadium before matches to prepare displays. These types of favoured relationships are often criticised when ultras groups abuse their power.Hooliganism
While ultras groups can become violent, the majority of matches attended by ultras conclude with no violent incidents. Unlike hooligan firms, whose main aim is to fight hooligans of other clubs, the main focus of ultras is generally to support their own team. Some hooligans try to be inconspicuous when they travel; usually not wearing team colours, to avoid detection by the police. Within the ultra or hooligan culture however, those dressing to "blend in" would be referred to as casuals, which is viewed by some as a branch of hooliganism, yet still maintaining its own independence and culture. Ultras tend to be more conspicuous when they travel, proudly displaying their scarves and club colours while arriving en masse, which allows the police to keep a close eye on their movements.Europe
France
Germany
The first Ultra group on German turf was established in 1985 and ran under the name "Ultras 85". They were founded as a group of supporters of the German club 1. FC Saarbrücken. The second group that is mentioned in literature, are the "Fortuna Eagles Supporters" who are connected to SC Fortuna Köln and were founded in 1986. In 1989, another group was formed under the name "Soccer Boyz". They are associated with Bundesliga Leverkusen. In the 1990s, the Ultras movement grew steadily. With the turn of the millennium, many Ultra groups took responsibility in the stands to contribute to the atmosphere, superseding individual fans and unorganised groups.The Ultra movement then spiked in the mid 2000s. Both individual memberships and the total number of groups increased drastically. The Ultras had now moved from a subculture to being mainstream. As a result of mixing with other subcultures such as hip-hop, punk, graffiti and street art, Ultra groups even collaborated with, and were referenced by artists in their work.
Due to rising numbers in membership changes developed and after a subcultural phase, which was partially political, Ultra groups have mostly become self-referential in the 2010s. There has also been a change in the way violence is viewed, leading to conflicts and separations even within groups. One example for the violent conflicts has happened at Alemannia Aachen where two different groups violently clashed at their home ground, the left leaning "Aachen Ultras" and the right wing "Karlsbande".
Nowadays, for almost all clubs of the three biggest german leagues, and for some in lower leagues, there are groups who identify as Ultras. In Germany, there are supposedly more than 25.000 Ultras organized in over 300 different groups.
Ultra-Movement against the DFB
As the rift between the Ultra groups and the German Football Association continued to grow, the Ultra group of Dynamo Dresden symbolically proclaimed war against the DFB in May 2017. Around 2.000 of them, raged through Karlsruhe, lit fireworks, stormed the stadium and held up a banner with the inscription "War Against DFB". The Ultras of Dresden were heavily criticized for their martial behaviour, yet, the next match day over 30 other Ultra groups applauded them for their agenda.In the 2000s, there already were nationwide campaigns by the German Ultra Movement. Following the campaign, the fan demonstration at the 2005 Confederations Cup, and several years of collaboration under the label “Zum Erhalt der Fankultur”, in 2017 the Dresden initiative was seen as a new beginning for networking in Germany. A large number of Ultra groups sought dialogue in order to organize a joint protest. The meetings, which even took place between rival groups, were extremely rare in Germany until then. The Ultra groups agreed on issues such as the investigation of the so-called , the end of match day fragmentation, fan-friendly kick-off times, the abolition of collective punishment, an end to corruption, the preservation of the 50+1 rule, transparency in the sports court, and an end to eventization.
Following these agreements, a similar protest against the association took place nationwide during the first round of the DFB-Pokal in August 2017. Across 28 Cup games, there were 32 demonstrations. Eventually, the pressure on the DFB became so great that in August 2017, they announced that they would refrain from issuing collective punishments until further notice and offered a “serious dialogue this time.”
The first such dialogue took place between the association's leadership and approximately 30 representatives from various Ultra groups on 9 November 2027. Both parties agreed on a consensus, or at least a convergence, regarding promotion rules for the Regionalliga, kick-off times, permitted fan items, and stadium bans. On June 1, 2018, the DFB introduced Monday games for the 3rd league, which prompted the ultra groups to pull back from the dialogue.
Just one day prior, there had been a second meeting, during which the DFB did not reveal their plan. The fans considered the dialogue a failure and criticised that no improvements had been made. They accused the DFB of only having agreed to the dialogue for publicity.