Wanli Emperor
The Wanli Emperor, personal name Zhu Yijun, was the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1572 to 1620. He succeeded his father, the Longqing Emperor. His reign of 48 years was the longest of the Ming dynasty.
The Wanli Emperor ascended the throne at the age of nine. During the first ten years of his reign, Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng effectively led the government, while the Emperor's mother, Lady Li, and the eunuch Feng Bao also played significant roles. The country experienced economic and military prosperity, reaching a level of power not seen since the early 15th century. The Emperor held great respect and appreciation for Zhang Juzheng, but as time passed, various factions within the government openly opposed Zhang, and the Emperor started to consider his influential position a burden. In 1582, Zhang died and within months, the Emperor dismissed Feng Bao and made significant changes to Zhang's administrative arrangements.
Ming China saw three major campaigns in the last decade of the 16th century. A Ming force of 40,000 soldiers had quelled a large rebellion in Ningxia by October 1592, allowing the Ming to shift their focus to Korea. Concurrently, Japan invaded Korea, leading to a joint Korean-Chinese force, including 40,000 Ming soldiers, pushing the Japanese out of most of Korea and forcing them to retreat to the southeast coast by 1593. In 1597, a second Japanese invasion was thwarted, and the suppression of the Yang Yinglong rebellion in southwest China concluded in a few months from 1599 due to Ming forces concentrating there amidst the ongoing war with Japan. In the final years of the Wanli era, the Jurchens grew stronger on the northeastern frontiers and posed a significant threat. In 1619, they defeated the Ming armies in the Battle of Sarhu and captured part of Liaodong.
Over time, the Emperor grew increasingly disillusioned with the constant demoralizing attacks and counterattacks from officials, causing him to become increasingly isolated. In the 1580s and 1590s, he attempted to promote his third son, Zhu Changxun, as heir to the throne, but faced strong opposition from officials. This led to ongoing conflicts between the Emperor and his ministers for over fifteen years. Eventually, the Emperor gave in and appointed his eldest son, Zhu Changluo, as heir in 1601, and Zhu Changluo later succeeded his father as the Taichang Emperor. In 1596, the Wanli Emperor attempted to establish a parallel administration composed of eunuchs, separate from the officials who had traditionally governed the empire, but this effort was abandoned in 1606. As a result, the governance of the country remained in the hands of Confucian intellectuals, who were often embroiled in disputes with each other. The opposition Donglin movement continued to criticize the Emperor and his followers, while pro-government officials were divided based on their regional origins.
Childhood and accession
Zhu Yijun, the future Wanli Emperor, was born on 4 September 1563 during the reign of his grandfather the Jiajing Emperor. His parents were the Emperor's third son and heir apparent, Zhu Zaiji, and the concubine Lady Li. He had two older brothers, both of whom died in early childhood before 1563, and a younger brother, Zhu Yiliu, who was created Prince of Lu in 1571. Zhu Zaiji ascended the throne as the Longqing Emperor in 1567. On 5 July 1572, the Longqing Emperor died at the age of 35, and Zhu Yijun succeeded his father two weeks later on 19 July 1572. He adopted the era name Wanli, which means "ten thousand calendars".Early reign: Zhang Juzheng's administration (1572–1582)
Toward the end of the Longqing Emperor's reign, the government was led by Senior Grand Secretary Gao Gong. Shortly after the Wanli Emperor's accession, an alliance between the eunuch Feng Bao, head of the Directorate of Ceremonial—the most important eunuch office in the imperial palace—and Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng succeeded in deposing Gao. Zhang replaced Gao and remained in power for a decade until his death in 1582. Influenced by the Mongol raids of the 1550s, Zhang sought to "enrich the country and strengthen the army" through Legalist rather than Confucian methods. He pursued the centralization of government and the expansion of imperial authority at the expense of local interests by streamlining administration and strengthening the military. These reforms included closing local academies and placing investigating censors under the control of the Grand Secretariat. Supported by eunuchs—especially Feng Bao—and Empress Dowager Li, who served as regent, Zhang was able to select his colleagues in the Grand Secretariat and exert informal control over the Ministry of Rites and the Censorate by appointing loyal followers to key posts in central and regional offices. Although he lacked formal authority to issue orders, this arrangement granted him considerable influence. Zhang also sought to redirect censors away from personal vendettas toward tax collection and the suppression of banditry. As a result, the efficiency of Ming state administration improved markedly between 1572 and 1582, reaching a level seen only in the empire's early years.Zhang implemented a series of reforms, including the conversion of tax payments from goods to silver, changes to the old military field system, and revisions to county accounts on corvée labor, fees, and surcharges between 1572 and 1579. A new cadastre was compiled from 1580 to 1582, and these reforms were formalized empire-wide through revised lists of taxpayers' obligations, unified into payments in silver. As part of the administrative reforms, unnecessary activities were abolished or limited, state support for Confucian students was reduced, and provincial authorities were instructed to require only one-third of the former corvée labor. Postal services were also curtailed. Despite these measures, tax rates remained unchanged and arrears were strictly enforced, enabling Zhang to generate a surplus of income over expenditure. This was a notable achievement, as the Ming state usually lacked financial reserves in the 16th century. Improved savings and tax collection produced substantial reserves: by 1582, granaries around the capital held nine years' worth of grain; the Taicang treasury contained 6 million liang of silver; the Court of the Imperial Stud held another 4 million; and 2.5 million was stored in Nanjing. Smaller reserves also existed in Sichuan, Zhejiang, and Guangxi. Despite these successes, Zhang introduced no institutional innovations, instead improving existing procedures under the slogan of restoring the order of the early Ming period.
As a proponent of peace with the Mongols, Zhang rejected the proposal of Minister of War Tan Lun for a pre-emptive strike against them. Instead, he ordered Qi Jiguang, commander of the northeastern border, to maintain an armed peace. This decision not only allowed for a reduction in the border army, but also resulted in the return of surplus soldiers to their family farms. Zhang not only rejected the notion that military affairs were less important than civilian ones, but also challenged the dominance of civilian dignitaries over military leaders. He appointed capable military leaders such as Qi Jiguang, Wang Chonggu, Tan Lun, Liang Menglong, and Li Chengliang to positions of responsibility. Additionally, he implemented a combination of defensive and offensive measures to strengthen border defenses and fostered peaceful relations with neighboring countries by opening border markets, particularly in the northwest.
Zhang's actions were within the bounds of existing legislation, but critics viewed them as an abuse of power to promote his followers and exert illegitimate pressure on officials. Open criticism was rare until his father's death in 1577. According to the law, Zhang was supposed to leave office due to mourning, but the Emperor chose to keep him in office. This was not unprecedented, but criticism of disrespect for parents was widespread. Despite the fact that the most vocal critics were punished with beatings, Zhang's reputation was damaged. In an attempt to suppress opposition, Zhang then enforced an extraordinary self-evaluation of all high-ranking officials, resulting in the elimination of around fifty opponents.
Zhang died on 9 July 1582. After his death, he was accused of the typical offenses of high officials, including bribery, living in luxury, promoting unqualified supporters, abusing power, and silencing critics. Thereafter, his followers among the officials were dismissed, and in the beginning of 1583, Feng Bao also lost his position. The Emperor protected the officers, which boosted their morale to a level not seen since the mid-15th century. The Wanli Emperor's more aggressive military policy was based on Zhang's successes, as he attempted to replace static defense with more offensive tactics and appointed only officials with military experience to lead the Ministry of War. The Emperor also shared Zhang's distrust of local and regional authorities and opposition to factional politics. Like Zhang, the Emperor preferred to solve real problems rather than engage in "empty talk" and factional conflicts.
Later reign (1582–1620)
Government of the anti–Zhang opposition (1582–1596)
After Zhang's death, a coalition formed between the Emperor's mother, the grand secretaries, the Ministry of Personnel, and the Censorate to ensure efficient administration of the empire. The opposition objected to this alliance and deemed it illegal, but with the absence of a strong statesman in the Grand Secretariat, there was no one to bring the administration under control. Both the Emperor and opposition officials feared the concentration of power in the Grand Secretariat and worked to prevent it. From 1582 to 1591, the Grand Secretariat was led briefly by Zhang Siwei and then for eight years by Shen Shixing. Shen attempted to find compromises between the Emperor and the bureaucracy, while also tolerating criticism and respecting the decisions of ministries and the censors, but his efforts to create a cooperative and cohesive atmosphere were unsuccessful. In 1590, the Grand Secretariat's alliance with the leadership of the Ministry of Personnel and the Censorate fell apart, causing Shen to lose much of his influence. He was eventually forced to resign in 1591 due to his approach to the succession issue, which had lost him the confidence of opposition officials.After 1582, the Emperor chose the leaders of the Grand Secretariat from among the opponents of Zhang Juzheng, Wang Xijue, and Zhao Zhigao until 1601). Except for the short-lived Wang Jiaping, all of Zhang's successors—including Shen Yiguan, Zhu Geng, Li Tingji, Ye Xianggao, and Fang Congzhe —fell out of favor and were either accused by censors during their lifetime or posthumously.
Opposition to Zhang, led by Gu Xiancheng, succeeded after his death in condemning him and purging his followers from the bureaucracy. This, however, enabled censors to criticize senior officials more freely, which angered the Emperor and caused widespread dissatisfaction, as the critics offered no constructive solutions. Zhang's opponents soon became entangled in persistent factional disputes, obstructing efforts to restore a strong centralized government. From 1585, censors also began to criticize the Emperor's private life. His reluctance to impose harsh punishments emboldened them. In response, the Wanli Emperor attempted to silence informants among his servants and gradually ceased responding to criticism. In 1588, accusations that he had accepted a bribe from a eunuch shocked the Emperor and led him to withdraw from cooperation with officials. He minimized contact with them, canceled the morning audience, and appeared publicly only at military celebrations. Communication with the bureaucracy was largely limited to written reports, often unanswered. Toward the end of his reign, he obstructed personnel appointments, leaving offices vacant and allowing officials to depart without written consent—an illegal practice that went unpunished. By 1603, nine of thirteen regional inspector posts remained unfilled, and by 1604, nearly half of prefectural offices and more than half of ministerial and vice-ministerial posts in both capitals were vacant. The Emperor also deliberately left many eunuch posts empty, especially the head of the Directorate of Ceremonial, in an effort to weaken ties between eunuchs and officials. This policy resulted in significant financial savings from unoccupied positions.
The Emperor's lack of involvement in official positions did not affect the administration's responsibility for tax collection. In times of military or other serious issues, he sought advice from responsible officials in ministries and the Censorate, and was not hesitant to appoint capable individuals outside of the traditional hierarchy to handle the situation, but he had a lack of trust in the regular administration and often found ways to bypass it. While he may have left some memoranda unanswered, he actively responded to others. Although the Emperor left some high positions vacant, the authorities were able to function under the guidance of deputies and the country's administration continued to run smoothly. Assistance was provided to those affected by famine, rebellions were suppressed, border conflicts were resolved, and infrastructure was maintained.
Hundreds of memoranda arrived on the Wanli Emperor's desk daily, but he only read and decided on a handful of them. The rest were handled by commissioned eunuchs, who were equipped with the imperial "red brush". These eunuchs mostly confirmed the recommendations and proposals of the grand secretaries, but occasionally made different decisions if they believed the Emperor would not agree with the grand secretaries' proposals.
Despite his desire to reform the civil service, the Emperor was unable to do so, and he also did not want to simply confirm the decisions of the officials. Both sides—the Emperor and the bureaucrats—wanted the other to behave properly, but their efforts were unsuccessful and only served to paralyze each other. As a result of these disputes at the center, the state's control over the countryside weakened.