Tian


Tian is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and is a central concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and cosmology. During the Shang dynasty, the highest deity was referred to as Shangdi or Di. In the subsequent Zhou dynasty, Tian became synonymous with this figure. Prior to the 20th century, the worship of Tian was considered an orthodox cosmic principle in China.
In Taoism and Confucianism, Tian is described in relation to its complementary aspect, Dì. Together, they were understood to represent the two poles of the Three Realms of reality, with Humanity occupying the middle realm, and the lower world inhabited by demons and spirits or "ghosts".
Tian was variously thought of as a supreme power presiding over lesser gods and human beings, a force that could bring order, calm, catastrophe, or punishment, a deity, destiny, an impersonal force governing events, a holy world or afterlife, possibly containing multiple realms, or some combination of these.

Characters

The modern Chinese character Tian and its early seal script form combine and . However, some of the original characters in Shang oracle bone script and Zhōu bronzeware script depict an anthropomorphic figure with an enlarged head representing a "great person."
In oracle and bronze inscriptions, the ideogram for 大 portrays a stick figure with arms stretched outward, symbolizing "great" or "large." The corresponding forms of Tian 天 emphasize the cranium of this "great person," represented either with a square or round head, or a head marked with one or two lines. Schuessler notes that some bronze graphs for Tian, depicting a person with a round head, resemble those for . He suggests that "the anthropomorphic graph may or may not indicate that the original meaning was 'deity' rather than 'sky'."
Two variant Chinese characters for Tian 天 are:
  • , written with and .
  • , a Daoist coinage combining and qi, used in the sense of "blue sky".

    Etymology

Reconstructions of Tian in Middle Chinese include t'ien, t'iɛn, tʰɛn > tʰian, and then. Reconstructions in Old Chinese include t'ien, t'en, hlin, thîn, and l̥ˤin.
Schuessler links the etymology of Tian with the Turkic and Mongolian word tengri, as well as with Tibeto-Burman words such as taleŋ and tǎ-lyaŋ, both meaning "sky" or "god". He also suggests a possible connection between Tian and 巔 or 顛, which share cognates such as Zemeic Naga tiŋ.
Other reconstructions of 天's Old Chinese pronunciation, such as *qʰl'iːn or *l̥ˤi propose a voiceless lateral onset, either as a consonant cluster or a single consonant. Baxter and Sagart argue, based on dialectal differences in Eastern Han Chinese, as a phonetic component in phono-semantic compounds, and its role in transcribing foreign syllables, that around 200 CE 天 had two onsets: coronal *tʰ and dorsal *x. Both are thought to have derived from an earlier voiceless lateral *l̥ˤ. The further etymology remains uncertain. One proposal links transcriptions of the Xiongnu word for "sky," haak-lin, as related.

Compounds

Tian is a component in many Chinese compounds. Some notable examples include:
  • Mandate of Heaven
  • Heavenly Questions, a section of the Chu Ci.
  • – an honorific title for the emperor
  • All under heaven
  • – meaning "the world; the universe"
  • Xingtian
  • .

    Chinese interpretations

In Confucianism and Taoism, the terms "Lord Heaven" and "Jade Emperor" were sometimes used for a supreme deity regarded as an anthropromorphized form of Tian, and in some interpretations these names were considered synonymous.
Tian was described as "the dwelling place of gods and other superhuman beings". It was also regarded as "the guardian of both the moral laws of mankind and the physical laws of nature... and is synonymous with the divine will."
In Chinese culture, heaven has often been associated with "order," serving as "the blueprint for creation," "the mandate by which earthly rulers govern," and "the standard by which to measure beauty, goodness, and truth."
During the Zhou dynasty, nobles made the worship of heaven a central part of their political philosophy. They viewed it as comprising "many gods" who embodied order, kingship, and the Mandate of Heaven.

Confucianism

Confucianism contains a religious dimension characterized by reverence for Heaven and Earth, which were regarded as powers regulating the natural world and influencing human affairs. The concepts of yīn and yáng were considered integral to this relationship, extending to humanity and human institutions. In this worldview, the "cosmos" and its "principles" served as the standard to which human conduct should conform.
Historically and in the present, many Confucian scholars have used the I Ching to divine events through the transformations of Tian and other natural forces. Respect for Heaven and the natural world has also led some Confucian thinkers to adopt perspectives interpreted as environmentalist, emphasizing harmony between humanity and nature as a foundation of moral cultivation. Within this framework, harmony was regarded as "the basis for a sincere mind." The emperor, as Tiānzǐ, was traditionally central to Confucian political philosophy.
Mount Tai has been regarded as a sacred site in Confucianism and was traditionally the most important location where emperors offered sacrifices to Heaven and Earth.

Confucius

The concept of Tian was central in the teachings of Confucius. He expressed trust in Heaven and believed that it overruled human effort. He saw himself as fulfilling the will of Heaven, which, in his view, would not allow him to die before completing his mission. References to Heaven appear throughout the Analects, where Confucius described its attributes and authority.
Confucius honored Heaven as the supreme source of goodness:
The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!"

He also acknowledged personal dependence upon Heaven:
The Master said, "Wherein I have done improperly, may Heaven reject me! May Heaven reject me!"

Confucius taught that Heaven could not be deceived:
The Master, being very ill, Zi Lu wished the disciples to act as ministers to him. During a remission of his illness, he said, "Long has the conduct of You been deceitful! By pretending to have ministers when I have them not, whom should I impose upon? Should I impose upon Heaven? Moreover, rather than that I should die in the hands of ministers, is it not better that I should die in the hands of you, my disciples? And though I may not get a great burial, shall I die upon the road?"

He believed that Heaven assigned tasks to people in order to teach them virtue and morality:
The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right."

Confucius expressed confidence that Heaven knew and approved of his work, even if human rulers did not recognize him:
The Master said, "Alas! there is no one that knows me." Zi Gong said, "What do you mean by thus saying—that no one knows you?" The Master replied, "I do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against men. My studies lie low, and my penetration rises high. But there is Heaven—that knows me!"

He also expressed complete trust in the providence of Heaven, even in times of danger:
The Master was put in fear in Kuang. He said, "After the death of King Wen, was not the cause of truth lodged here in me? If Heaven had wished to let this cause of truth perish, then I, a future mortal, should not have obtained such a relation to that cause. While Heaven does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the people of Kuang do to me?"

Mozi

For Mozi, Heaven was regarded as the divine ruler, in the same way that the Son of Heaven functioned as the earthly ruler. Mozi accepted the existence of spirits and minor demons—or at least argued that rituals should be performed as if they existed for social reasons—but considered their role to be carrying out the will of Heaven by observing human conduct and punishing wrongdoers. He taught that Heaven loves all people equally and that individuals should therefore extend love impartially to all human beings, without distinguishing between relatives and strangers.
Mozi also criticized the Confucians of his time for failing to follow what he considered the authentic teachings of Confucius. In his Will of Heaven, he wrote:
"Moreover, I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons—Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer—to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present."