Social penetration theory
The social penetration theory proposes that interpersonal communication moves from relatively shallow, non-intimate levels to deeper, more intimate ones as relationships. The theory was formulated by psychologists Irwin Altman of the University of Utah and Dalmas Taylor of the University of Delaware in 1973 to understand the development of relationships between individuals. Altman and Taylor noted that relationships "involve different levels of intimacy of exchange or degree of social penetration". Thinking about how relationships typically become closer, modern researchers are using SPT to understand how people connect and build relationships online, like on social media. This idea helps researchers consider the ethical questions and problems that come up when people share personal details and try to keep things private when they interact online. SPT posits that relationship development progresses through stages characterized by increasing breadth and depth of self-disclosure, a process by factors such as uncertainty reduction, disclosure reciprocity, and the assessment of rewards and cost, while also considering potential barriers and the concept of de-penetration.
SPT is known as an objective theory as opposed to an interpretive theory, meaning it is based on data drawn from actual experiments and not simply from conclusions based on individuals' specific experiences.
SPT states that the relationship development occurs primarily through self-disclosure—when one intentionally reveals information such as personal motives, desires, feelings, thoughts, and experiences to others. This theory assumes that as people becomes closer with others, positive reinforcement through positive interactions allow people to achieve deeper levels of intimacy. The theory is also guided by the assumptions that relationship development is systematic and predictable. SPT also examines the process of de-penetration, how some relationships regress over time, and eventually end.
Assumptions
SPT is based on four basic assumptions:- Relationship development moves from superficial layers to intimate ones. For instance, people tend to present their outer images only, talking about hobbies on a first date. As the relational development progresses, wider and more controversial topics such as political views are included in the dialogues.
- Interpersonal relationships develop in a generally systematic and predictable manner. This assumption indicates the predictability of relationship development. Although it is impossible to foresee the exact and precise path of relational development, there is a certain trajectory to follow. As Altman and Taylor note, "eople seem to possess very sensitive tuning mechanisms which enable them to program carefully their interpersonal relationships."
- Relational development can move backward, resulting in de-penetration and dissolution. For example, after prolonged and fierce fights, a couple who originally planned to get married may decide to break up and ultimately become strangers.
- Self-disclosure is one key to facilitate relationship development and involves the disclosing and sharing personal information to others. It enables individuals to know each other and plays a crucial role in determining how far a relationship can go, as gradual exploration of mutual selves is essential in the process of social penetration.
Self-disclosure
As for the speed of self-disclosure, Altman and Taylor were convinced that the process of social penetration moves quickly in the beginning stages of a relationship and slows down considerably in the later stages. Those who are able to develop a long-term, positive reward/cost outcome are the same people who are able to share important matches of breadth categories. The early reward/cost assessment has a strong impact on the relationship's reactions, involvement, and expectations in a relationship regarding the future, play a major role in the outcome of the relationship.
Uncertainty reduction theory
The uncertainty reduction theory is the process that people experience as they begin new relationships. When two strangers meet, they engage by asking each other questions in order to build a stronger relationship. In the context of both URT and SPT, questions are seen as a tool to learn information about the other in order to receive rewards. These rewards are either physical/material rewards, or abstract rewards that supplement the relationship as it develops.Through this process of asking questions in a new relationship, uncertainty and anxiety can be reduced and lead to a more developed relationship between the two people. Where social penetration theory postulates that new relationships steadily evolve into deeper conversations and interactions, uncertainty reduction theory postulates that these new relationships can reach that deep level through question and answer processes. Although SPT primarily focuses on the linear trajectory of the relationship as the two parties get a deeper understanding of one another, URT is relevant in that it focuses on each instance when uncertainty may need to be reduced through question asking on a case-by-case basis.
Disclosure reciprocity
Self-disclosure is reciprocal, especially in the early stages of relationship development. Disclosure reciprocity is an indispensable component in SPT, and is a process where one person reveals personal information of a certain intimacy level, and the other person discloses information of the same level. It is two-way disclosure, or mutual disclosure. Disclosure reciprocity can induce positive and satisfactory feelings and drive forward relational development, because as mutual disclosure takes place between individuals, they might feel a sense of emotional equity. Disclosure reciprocity occurs when the openness of one person is reciprocated with the same degree of the openness from the other person. For instance, if someone was to bring up their experience with an intimate topic such as weight gain or having divorced parents, the person they are talking to could reciprocate by sharing their own experience.Self-disclosure being reciprocated is also a forming foundation for interpersonal relationships. If self-disclosure is not reciprocated in an interpersonal relationship, it moves the relationship to potentially face a stage of de-penetration or "slow deterioration". This can happen in a few ways, such as oversharing and undersharing. Oversharing personal information can lead to the end of the relationship, as "ome partners may be ill-equipped and underprepared to know someone so intimately". Since self-disclosure depends on going back and forth, if one partner does not share in that, it leads to an imbalance in the relationship, and the bond will unlikely progress since the other partner only knows a certain amount. This also causes the partner who shares or discloses not wanting to disclose any further, hindering the interpersonal relationship's progress because "he greater the depth, the more opportunity for a person to feel vulnerable". Vulnerability leads the partner to believe that there can be an interpersonal relationship as it translates into trust for partners' relationship.
Onion model
SPT uses the onion model, which visualizes self-disclosure as a process of removing layers. The onion denotes various layers of personality. It is sometimes called the "onion theory" of personality. Three major factors influence self-revelation and begin the process of the onion theory: personal characteristics, reward/cost assessments, and the situational context.Stages
Relationship development is not automatic, but occurs through the skills of partners in revealing or disclosing first their attitudes and later their personalities, inner character, and true selves. This is done in a reciprocal manner. The main factor that acts as a catalyst in the development of relationships is proper self disclosure. Altman and Taylor proposes that there are four major stages in social penetration:- The orientation stage: individuals engage in small talk and simple, harmless clichés like, 'Life's like that'. This first stage follows the standards of social desirability and norms of appropriateness. The outer images are presented and peripheral information are exchanged. The most, but least intimate information is given here.
- The exploratory affective stage: individuals start to reveal the inner self bit by bit, expressing personal attitudes about moderate topics such as government and education. This may not be the whole truth as individuals are not yet comfortable to lay themselves bare. This is the stage of casual friendship, and many relationships do not go past this stage.
- The affective stage: individuals are getting more comfortable to talk about private and personal matters, and there are some forms of commitment in this stage. Personal idioms, or words and phrases that embody unique meanings between individuals, are used in conversations. Criticism and arguments may arise. A comfortable share of positive and negative reactions occur in this stage. Relationships become more important, meaningful, and enduring to both parties. It is a stage of close friendships and intimate partners.
- The stable stage: the relationship now reaches a plateau in which some of the deepest personal thoughts, beliefs, and values are shared and each can predict the emotional reactions of the other person. This stage is characterized with complete openness, raw honesty and a high degree of spontaneity. The least, but most intimate information is given here.
- De-penetration stage : when the relationship starts to break down and costs exceed benefits, there is a withdrawal of disclosure that causes the relationship to end.