Uncertainty reduction theory

The uncertainty reduction theory, also known as initial interaction theory, developed in 1975 by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese, is a communication theory from the post-positivist tradition.
It is one of the few communication theories that specifically looks into the initial interaction between people prior to the actual communication process. Uncertainty reduction theory originators' main goal when constructing it was to explain how communication is used to reduce uncertainty between strangers during a first interaction. Berger explains uncertainty reduction theory as an "increased knowledge of what kind of person another is, which provides an improved forecast of how a future interaction will turn out". Uncertainty reduction theory claims that everyone activates two processes in order to reduce uncertainty. The first being a proactive process, which focuses on what someone might do. The second being a retroactive process, which focuses on how people understand what another does or says. This theory's main claim is that people must receive information about another party in order to reduce their uncertainty and, that people want to do so. While uncertainty reduction theory claims that communication will lead to reduced uncertainty, it is important to note that this is not always the case. Dr. Dale E. Brashers of the University of Illinois argues that in some scenarios, more communication may lead to greater uncertainty.
Berger and Calabrese explain the connection between their central concept of uncertainty and seven key variables of relationship development with a series of axioms and deduce a series of theorems accordingly. Within the theory two types of uncertainty are identified: cognitive uncertainty and behavioral uncertainty. There are three types of strategies which people may use to seek information about someone: passive, active, and interactive. Furthermore, the initial interaction of strangers can be broken down into individual stages—the entry stage, the personal stage, and the exit stage. According to the theory, people find uncertainty in interpersonal relationships unpleasant and are motivated to reduce it through interpersonal communication.

History

The foundation of the uncertainty reduction theory stems from the information theory, originated by Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver. Shannon and Weaver suggests, when people interact initially, uncertainties exist especially when the probability for alternatives in a situation is high and the probability of them occurring is equally high. They assume uncertainty is reduced when the amount of alternatives is limited and/or the alternatives chosen tend to be repetitive.
In 1975, Berger and Calabrese created uncertainty reduction theory "to explain how communication is used to reduce uncertainties between strangers engaging in their first conversation together". Previous researchers had approached interpersonal communication from empirical perspectives. Hypotheses had been derived from social psychological theories as well. However, the lack of focus on interpersonal communication process motivated Berger and Calabrese to form hypotheses that directly involve communication behavior.
Further research expanded uncertainty reduction theory's explanatory power in areas such as verbal communication, nonverbal communication, intimacy, reciprocity, and information seeking, etc. Scholars suggest that people should use a "variety of sources when collecting information to reduce their uncertainty." The variety of sources should include the words being expressed as well as the physical mannerisms coupled with those expressions.
Brashers helped to further expand the scope of uncertainty reduction theory outside the traditional dyadic interpersonal exchange. Now, when scholars talk about uncertainty reduction, they tend to take humanity's discomfort with uncertainty as a basic tenet of what it means to be human.

Assumptions

There are seven assumptions associated with the uncertainty reduction theory:

People experience uncertainty in interpersonal settings.
Uncertainty is an aversive state, generating cognitive stress.
When strangers meet, their primary concern is to reduce their uncertainty or to increase predictability.
Interpersonal communication is a developmental process that occurs through stages.
Interpersonal communication is the primary means of uncertainty reduction.
The quantity and nature of information that people share can change through time.
It is possible to predict people's behavior in a lawlike fashion.
Types of uncertainty

Cognitive uncertainty

According to the theory, people can have cognitive and behavioral uncertainty. Both of these might occur when two people meet for the first time.
Cognitive uncertainty is the uncertainty about other persons' beliefs and thoughts. It pertains to the level of uncertainty associated with the cognition of each other in the situation. Uncertainty is high in initial interactions because individuals are not aware of the beliefs and attitude of the other party. An example of this is someone could have doubts about why another person acts a specific way, and then as a consequence, some questions may arise that could make a person feel uncertain. an example of cognitive uncertainty would be not knowing if a joke would deem funny or inappropriate to the other so you are uncertain if you should make that joke.

Behavioral uncertainty

Behavioral uncertainty is the uncertainty about other persons' actions. It pertains to "the extent to which behavior is predictable in a given situation". Uncertainty is one motivation behind adoption of norms in most societies in which people tend to abide by, and if in initial conversations one chooses to ignore such norms there are risks of increasing behavioral uncertainty and reducing the likelihood of having future interactions. A great example of ignoring societal norms is engaging in inappropriate self-disclosure.

Reasons to reduce uncertainty

Berger suggests that an individual will tend to actively pursue the reduction of uncertainty in an interaction if any of the three conditions are verified. According to the theory, any single factor or all three of them combined can result in an increase in one's desire to reduce uncertainty in interpersonal interactions. These motives deal with decreasing uncertainty with strangers, relationships, and overall uncertainty within interactions.

Anticipation of future interaction: A future meeting is a certainty.
Incentive value: They have or control something we want.
Deviance: They act in a manner that is departing from accepted standards

Example: For a couple of weeks there will be a new manager in your workplace, therefore future interactions with this person is a certainty. The manager is assigning projects to the people in your department, every project returns a different commission which will directly influence your income. Arguably, being assigned a higher paying project has a greater incentive value for anyone in the department. The manager has a sibling in your department, which could influence the manager's decision on project assignments.

Stages of relational development

Berger and Calabrese separate the initial interaction of strangers into three stages: the entry stage, the personal stage, and the exit stage. Each stage includes interactional behaviors that serve as indicators of liking and disliking. Understanding the cycle of relational development is key to studying how people seek to reduce uncertainty about others.

The entry stage: the entry stage of relational development is characterized by the use of behavioral norms. Meaning individuals begin interactions under the guidance of implicit and explicit rules and norms, such as pleasantly greeting someone or laughing at ones innocent jokes. Individuals use similar scripts to obtain basic information about the other person. The contents of the exchanges are often dependent on cultural norms. The level of involvement will increase as the strangers move into the second stage.
The personal stage: the personal phase occurs when strangers begin to explore one another's attitudes and beliefs. Individuals typically enter this stage after they have had several entry stage interactions with a stranger. One will probe the other for indications of their values, morals and personal issues. Emotional involvement tends to increase as disclosure increases.
The exit stage: in the exit phase, the former strangers decide whether they want to continue to develop a relationship. If there is no mutual liking, either can choose not to pursue a relationship.

Example: Rob Grace and Jason Chew Kit Tham discussed the three stages of crisis communication during the COVID-19 pandemic in the article Adapting Uncertainty Reduction Theory for Crisis Communication: Guidelines for Technical Communicators. In the first stage, city officials increased "the frequency of crisis communication, explaining recent events over five news conferences held during the week, and providing resources for citizens seeking information." In the second stage, the officials "recognized citizens' needs and experiences by adding a FAQs section and COVID-19 Dashboard to the city's website and by fielding citizens' questions during eight news conferences and city council sessions." In the last stage, the officials "broadcast two news conferences and explained the roles that state and local officials would assume during the phased reopening."

Strategies for reducing uncertainty

People engage in passive, active, or interactive strategies to reduce uncertainty with others. Based on the overall uncertainty reduction theory, people should retrieve general demographic information about other people to reduce the level of uncertainty that they have about people's behavior. Strategies as seeking information, focusing on primary goals, contingency planning, plan adaptation, accretive planning, and framing are often utilized by human communicators.
These strategies are meaningful to communication studies in a way that people's "unique capacities for forethought and planning and their ability to monitor carefully ongoing communication episodes" is valued in communicative process.

Passive strategy: according to Berger, If a person were to observe another in their natural environment, intentionally unnoticeable, to gain information on another, would be categorized as using a passive tactic for reducing uncertainties. Observing a person interacting with another resulting in less uncertainty. For example, watching someone in class, cafeteria, or any common area without attracting attention.
Active strategy: an active strategist would result to means of reducing uncertainties without any personal direct contact. Asking another person or people about the individual you are trying to reduce uncertainty about. For example, if one were to ask a friend about a particular person, or ask the particular person's friend for some information without actually confronting the person directly.
Interactive strategy: an interactive strategist would directly confront the individual and engage in some form of dialog to reduce the uncertainties between the two. Direct contact. For example, if one goes up to the person of said uncertainty and asking them directly.
Extractive information seeking: A new strategy for reducing uncertainty was suggested in 2002 by Ramirez, Walther, Burgoon, and Sunnafrank that complements computer mediated communication and the technological advancements. Given the vast amount of information one could find about an individual via online resources a fourth uncertainty reduction strategy that uses online mediums to obtain information was labeled as extractive information seeking. For example, using a social media platform such as facebook or instagram as a tool to research personal information about said person.