Shock collar
A shock collar, also known as an e-collar, Ecollar, or electronic collar, is a type of collar that delivers electrical current to the neck of its wearer, in an effort to control behaviour as a form of aversive training. These collars incorporate an electronic device that can either trigger automatically as in the case of bark control collars, or electronic fence systems, or may be triggered via a remote control. Many object to the user of shock collars as animal cruelty as they can cause discomfort, pain and fear, and several countries and regions and have banned their use. Some models offer additional features such as a tone or vibrational setting that can be used as an alternative or in combination with the shock, and may incorporate GPS functionality to track the collar's location.
Shock collars were initially developed for training hunting dogs in the 1960s, and were originally designed with only one high level of power. Many modern versions are capable of delivering varying levels of shock. In areas where shock collars are legal, they are generally accessible, although Petco took the lead as the first major U.S. retailer to cease their sale. Where permitted, shock collars have been used in a range of applications, including behavioral modification, obedience training, and pet containment, as well as military, police and service training.
Types
Invisible fences
, or invisible fences, are designed to keep an animal within a boundary, such that the wearer is shocked when they try to leave a boundary defined by a hidden wire, or by a set of co-ordinates.These systems are illegal for use with pets in 14 countries and discouraged under existing animal welfare laws in others, such as Scotland.
Bark control shock collars
Bark control shock collars are used to curb excessive or nuisance barking by delivering a shock at the moment the dog begins barking. Bark collars can be activated by microphone or vibration, and some of the most advanced collars use both sound and vibration to eliminate the possibility of extraneous noises activating a response.Remote shock collars
Remote shock collars can be activated by a handheld device to give the dog an electric shock which causes pain. Remote shock collars can deliver variable shocks in variable duration and intensities, and may additionally have a beep or vibration option for getting the dog's attention without the use of an electric shock.Remote shock collars use operant conditioning either as a form of positive punishment, where the correction is applied at the moment an undesired behavior occurs to reduce the frequency of that behavior—or as a form of negative reinforcement, where a continuous stimulation is applied until the moment a desired behavior occurs, to increase the frequency of that behavior.
How they work in training
Shock collars are used in dog training primarily within the framework of operant conditioning, in which behavior is modified through the systematic application of consequences. Depending on how they are applied, shock collars can function either as positive punishment or as negative reinforcement.In positive punishment, the electrical stimulus is delivered immediately after an undesired behavior in order to reduce the future frequency of that behavior. In negative reinforcement, the stimulus is applied continuously or in anticipation of a behavior and is terminated when the dog performs the desired response, thereby reinforcing that response through relief from the aversive stimulus.
The effectiveness and side effects of shock collar training are strongly influenced by timing, predictability, and consistency. For conditioning to occur, the stimulus must be closely paired in time with the target behavior, and the dog must be able to associate the stimulus with its own actions rather than with unrelated environmental cues or the presence of the handler. Poor timing or inconsistent application can lead to confusion, ineffective learning, or the development of unintended associations.
From a learning theory perspective, shock collars operate through aversive control, in contrast to reward-based methods that rely primarily on positive reinforcement.. Reviews and studies have reported that avoidance-based training can produce rapid behavioral suppression but may be associated with elevated stress responses and less reliable generalization compared with reward-based methods., in contrast to reward-based methods that rely primarily on positive reinforcement. In positive reinforcement training, desired behaviors are increased by the delivery of rewards such as food, play, or social interaction, without the use of aversive stimuli. Marker training, which uses a conditioned reinforcer such as a clicker or verbal marker to signal correct behavior, is commonly combined with positive reinforcement to improve precision and learning speed.
Shock collar training is also related to avoidance learning, in which the animal learns to perform a behavior to prevent or terminate an aversive stimulus. In such cases, behavior may be maintained by the anticipation of the stimulus rather than by the presence of a reward. Studies in animal learning have shown that avoidance-based training can produce rapid behavioral suppression but may be associated with elevated stress responses and less reliable generalization compared with reward-based methods. Studies in animal learning have shown that avoidance-based training can produce rapid behavioral suppression but may be associated with elevated stress responses and less reliable generalization compared with reward-based methods.
Opinions about the amount of pain caused by shock collars
Pain is a difficult outcome to measure because its nature is both multifaceted and subjective, as a result, researchers disagree on how much pain a shock collar causes.Dr Diane Frank, in the Australian Veterinary Journal, argues that shock collars for dogs inflict pain and distress. "Electric shock hurts and the same shock will be perceived differently by different dogs. Regardless, if the dog perceives pain, experiences a stress response that actively interferes with learning positive, more favourable, substitute behaviour. If the shock and pain are profound, it is possible to induce almost immediate long-term potentiation, or the molecular changes associated with hippocampal memory, which will lead to a strong aversion or phobia."
In contrast, Steven R. Lindsay, in the 2013 edition of his textbook on training and behavior, stated: "At low levels, the term shock is hardly fitting... since there is virtually no effect beyond a pulsing tingling or tickling sensation on the surface of the skin... the word shock is loaded with biased connotations, images of convulsive spasms and burns, and implications associated with extreme physical pain, emotional trauma, physiological collapse, and laboratory abuses... the stimulus or signal generated by most modern devices is highly controlled and presented to produce a specific set of behavioral and motivational responses to it." Lindsay does note that higher levels of shock from these collars do cause "fear" and "acute pain".
In 2000, prior to Germany's ban on shock collars, Dr. Dieter Klein, in an article published in the German trade magazine "Office for Veterinary Service and Food Control", stated that shock collars for dogs cause minimal pain, comparing the impact of shock collars to other devices utilizing electrical stimulation. "Modern devices... are in a range in which normally no organic damage is being inflicted. The electric properties and performances... are comparable to the electric stimulation devices used in human medicine. Organic damage, as a direct impact of the applied current, can be excluded."
Comparing pain levels: evaluating different amperages
The intensity of pain caused by electric current can vary significantly due to small changes in amperage. This pain can be further amplified by adjusting the pulse rate and pulse duration.Other factors such as voltage, current, waveform, and frequency of the waveform are not particularly relevant when it comes to assessing the level of pain. While these factors can be used to calculate the amount of energy applied in Joules, they do not indicate the actual intensity of the stimulus or how it will be perceived by the recipient.
In 2004, Dr. Dieter Klein conducted research and estimated that commercial shock collars, which were later banned in Germany, operated at a minimum setting of 30 milliamps and a maximum setting of 80 milliamps. Another commonly-cited study, conducted by Christiansen et al., utilized shock collars with a higher intensity, reaching up to 400 milliamps. These figures do not directly translate into a specific level of perceived pain, because collar design, pulse structure, electrode contact, and individual sensitivity strongly influence how a given current is experienced.
Depending on design, some shock collars can be set so that at the lowest level, the shock delivered is only mildly uncomfortable, and at the highest level produce acute pain. Variable settings of this kind are essential, so that the shock collar can be adjusted to provide the level of pain that changes the dog's behavior, as situations change.
Shock collars are sometimes referred to as delivering a “static shock.” However, static electricity is simple direct current and carries little energy, on the order of millijoules. Shock collars do not use simple direct current because the effect is too unpredictable, but rather, use pulsed direct current producing an effect resembling the square wave of alternating current. It is therefore inappropriate to refer to shock collars as delivering a static shock.
Consistent pain delivery requires good contact between the collar electrodes and the dog's shock skin. The shock collar must be fitted according to the manufacturer's instructions. Local humidity and individual variation in coat density, skin thickness and surface conductivity, also affect the delivery of the pain.
Individual variations in temperament, pain sensitivity and susceptibility to startle in dogs mean that settings must be carefully adjusted to produce pain that is perceived by the dog as only just aversive enough to stop the dog engaging in the unwanted behavior. Normally salient stimuli, such as noises, commands and even shocks, may have no effect on a dog that is highly aroused and focused on an activity such as hunting.
Individual shocks delivered by a shock collar are of short duration, typically 6–8 milliseconds. However, pain intensity can be increased by using the same milliamps for each shock while delivering more shocks per second:
"Many e−collars appear to shift intensity levels by altering the pulse duration or repetition rate while keeping the output current and voltage relatively constant, depending on the electrode−skin load."
The pain level can also be increased by delivering a continuous series of shocks.