SpaceX Raptor
Raptor is a family of rocket engines developed and manufactured by SpaceX. It is the third rocket engine in history designed with a full-flow staged combustion fuel cycle, and the first such engine to power a vehicle in flight. The engine is powered by cryogenic liquid methane and liquid oxygen, a combination known as methalox.
SpaceX's super-heavy-lift Starship uses Raptor engines in its Super Heavy booster and in the Starship second stage. Starship missions include lifting payloads to Earth orbit and is also planned for missions to the Moon and Mars. The engines are being designed for reuse with little maintenance.
Design
Raptor is designed for extreme reliability, aiming to support the airline-level safety required by the point-to-point Earth transportation market. Gwynne Shotwell claimed that Raptor would be able to deliver "long life... and more benign turbine environments".Full-flow staged combustion
Raptor is powered by subcooled liquid methane and subcooled liquid oxygen in a full-flow staged combustion cycle. This type of combustion is a twin-shaft staged combustion cycle that uses both oxidizer-rich and fuel-rich preburners. The cycle allows for the full flow of both propellants through the turbines without dumping any unburnt propellant overboard.Full-flow staged combustion is a departure from the more traditional "open-cycle" gas generator system and LOX/kerosene propellants used by its predecessor Merlin. Before Raptor, no full-flow staged combustion engine had ever been used inflight and only two designs had progressed sufficiently to reach test stands: the Soviet RD-270 project in the 1960s, a full scale test engine and the Aerojet Rocketdyne Integrated Powerhead Demonstrator in the mid-2000s, which only demonstrated the powerhead. RS-25 engines used a simpler form of staged combustion cycle. Several Russian rocket engines, including the RD-180 and the RD-191 did as well.
Full-flow staged combustion has the advantage that the energy produced by the preburners, and used to power the propellant pumps, is spread among the entire fuel flow, meaning that the preburner exhaust driving the propellant turbopumps is as cool as possible, even cooler than other closed engine cycles that only preburn one propellant. This contributes to a long engine life. In contrast, an open-cycle engine in which the preburner exhaust bypasses the main combustion chamber tries to minimize the amount of propellant fed through the preburner, which is achieved by operating the turbine at its maximum survivable temperature.
An oxygen-rich turbine powers an oxygen turbopump, and a fuel-rich turbine powers a methane turbopump. Both oxidizer and fuel streams are converted completely to the gas phase before they enter the combustion chamber. This speeds up mixing and combustion, reducing the size and mass of the required combustion chamber. Torch igniters are used in the preburners. Because of the high temperatures of the preburner exhaust, the main combustion chamber of Raptor 2 has no main igniter, which eliminate the need for Merlin's dedicated, consumable igniter fluid. Raptor 2 uses coaxial swirl injectors to admit propellants to the combustion chamber, rather than Merlin's pintle injectors.
Propellants
Raptor is designed for deep cryogenic propellants—fluids cooled to near their freezing points, rather than their boiling points, as is typical for cryogenic rocket engines. Subcooled propellants are denser, increasing propellant mass per volume as well as engine performance. Specific impulse is increased, and the risk of cavitation at inputs to the turbopumps is reduced due to the higher propellant fuel mass flow rate per unit of power generated. Cavitation reduces fuel flow/pressure and can starve the engine, while eroding turbine blades. The oxidizer to fuel ratio of the engine is approximately 3.8 to 1. Methalox burns relatively cleanly, reducing carbon build-up in the engine.Liquid methane and oxygen propellants have been adopted by many companies, such as Blue Origin with its BE-4 engine, as well as Chinese startup Space Epoch's Longyun-70.
Manufacturing and materials
Many components of early Raptor prototypes were manufactured using 3D printing, including turbopumps and injectors, increasing the speed of development and testing. The 2016 subscale development engine had 40% of its parts manufactured by 3D printing. In 2019, engine manifolds were cast from SpaceX's in-house developed SX300 Inconel superalloy, later improved to SX500.History
Conception
SpaceX's Merlin and Kestrel rocket engines use a RP-1 and liquid oxygen combination. Raptor has about triple the thrust of SpaceX's Merlin 1D engine, which powers the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launch vehicles.Raptor was conceived to burn hydrogen and oxygen propellants as of 2009. SpaceX had a few staff working on the Raptor upper-stage engine at a low priority in 2011.
In October 2012, SpaceX announced concept work on an engine that would be "several times as powerful as the Merlin 1 series of engines, and won't use Merlin's RP-1 fuel".
Development
In November 2012, Musk announced that SpaceX was working on methane-fueled rocket engines, that Raptor would be methane-based, and that methane would fuel Mars colonization. Because of the presence of underground water and carbon dioxide in Mars atmosphere, methane, a simple hydrocarbon, could be synthesized on Mars using the Sabatier reaction. NASA analysis found in-situ resource production on Mars to be viable for oxygen, water, and methane production.In early 2014 SpaceX confirmed that Raptor would be used for both first and second stages of its next rocket. This held as the design evolved from the Mars Colonial Transporter to the Interplanetary Transport System, the Big Falcon Rocket, and ultimately, Starship.
The concept evolved from a family of Raptor-designated rocket engines to focus on the full-size Raptor engine.
In January 2016, the US Air Force awarded a development contract to SpaceX to develop a prototype Raptor for use on the upper stage of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy.
The first version was intended to operate at a chamber pressure of. As of July 2022, chamber pressure had reached 300 bars in a test. In April 2024, Musk shared the performance achieved by SpaceX with the Raptor 1 engine and Raptor 2 engine along with the target specifications for the upcoming Raptor 3 and said SpaceX would aim to ultimately achieve over 330 tonnes of thrust on the sea-level booster engines.
Raptor 1 and 2 engines require a heat shroud to protect pipes and wiring from the heat of high-velocity atmospheric re-entry, while Raptor 3 is designed so that it does not require an external heat shield.
Testing
Initial development testing of Raptor components was done at NASA's Stennis Space Center, beginning in April 2014. Testing focused on startup and shutdown procedures, as well as hardware characterization and verification.SpaceX began testing injectors in 2014 and tested an oxygen preburner in 2015. 76 hot-fire tests of the preburner, totaling some 400 seconds of test time, were executed from April–August.
By early 2016, SpaceX had constructed an engine test stand at their McGregor test site in central Texas for Raptor testing. The first Raptor was manufactured at the SpaceX Hawthorne facility in California. By August 2016 it was shipped to McGregor for development testing. The engine had thrust. It was the first-ever full-flow staged combustion methalox engine to reach a test stand.
A subscale development engine was used for design validation. It was one-third the size of the engine designs that were envisioned for flight vehicles. It featured of chamber pressure, with a thrust of and used the SpaceX-designed SX500 alloy, created to contain hot oxygen gas in the engine at up to. It was tested on a ground test stand in McGregor, firing briefly. To eliminate flow separation problems while testing in Earth's atmosphere, the test nozzle expansion ratio was limited to 150.
By September 2017, the subscale engine had completed 1200 seconds of firings across 42 tests.
SpaceX completed many static fire tests on a vehicle using Raptor 2s, including a 31 engine test on 9 February 2023, and a 33 engine test on 25 August 2023. During testing, more than 50 chambers melted, and more than 20 engines exploded.
SpaceX completed its first integrated flight test of Starship on 20 April 2023. The rocket had 33 Raptor 2 engines, but three of those were shut down before the rocket lifted off from the launch mount. The flight test was terminated after climbing to an altitude of ~39 km over the Gulf of Mexico. Multiple engines were out before the flight termination system destroyed the booster and ship.
On the second integrated flight test, all 33 booster engines remained lit until boostback burn startup, and all six Starship engines remained lit until the FTS was activated.
On the third integrated flight test, all 33 booster engines once again remained lit until main engine cutoff, and then following hot-staging, 13 successfully relit to perform a boostback for full duration. On the booster's landing burn, only 3 engines of the planned 13 lit, with 2 shutting down rapidly, the other remained lit until the booster was destroyed ~462 metres above sea level. The ship successfully kept all 6 engines lit until second stage / secondary engine cutoff without issues, however a planned in-space Raptor re-light was cancelled due to rolling during coast.
The seventh flight test featured the first reflown Raptor engine, which was successfully flown during Super Heavy Booster 14's ascent burn and was recovered after its successful catch by the launch tower. A further 29 raptors were reflown on B14 for Starship's ninth test flight.
Starship
Original configuration
In November 2016, Raptor was projected to power the proposed Interplanetary Transport System, in the early 2020s. Musk discussed two engines: a sea-level variant with thrust of at sea level for the first stage/booster, and a vacuum variant with thrust of in space. 42 sea-level engines were envisioned in the high-level design of the first stage.Three gimbaling sea-level Raptor engines would be used for landing the second stage. Six additional, non-gimbaling vacuum-optimized Raptor Vacuum engines would provide primary thrust for the second stage, for a total of nine engines. Raptor Vacuums were envisioned to contribute a specific impulse of, using a nozzle extension.
In September 2017 Musk said that a smaller Raptor engine—with slightly over half as much thrust as the previous designs—would be used on the next-generation rocket, a -diameter launch vehicle termed Big Falcon Rocket and later renamed Starship. The redesign was aimed at Earth-orbit and cislunar missions so that the new system might pay for itself, in part, through economic spaceflight activities in the near-Earth space zone. With the much smaller launch vehicle, fewer Raptor engines would be needed. BFR was then slated to have 31 Raptors on the first stage and 6 on the second stage.
By mid-2018, SpaceX was publicly stating that the sea-level Raptor was expected to have thrust at sea level with a specific impulse of, with a nozzle exit diameter of. Raptor Vacuum would have specific impulse of in vacuum and was expected to exert force with a specific impulse of, using a nozzle exit diameter of.
In the BFR update given in September 2018, Musk showed a video of a 71-second fire test of a Raptor engine, and stated that "this is Raptor that will power BFR, both the ship and the booster; it's the same engine. approximately a 200 tons engine aiming for roughly 300 bar chamber pressure. If you had it at a high expansion ratio, has the potential to have a specific impulse of 380." SpaceX aimed at a lifetime of 1000 flights.