Earth's energy budget

Earth's energy budget is the balance between the energy that Earth receives from the Sun and the energy the Earth loses back into outer space. Smaller energy sources, such as Earth's internal heat, are taken into consideration, but make a tiny contribution compared to solar energy. The energy budget also takes into account how energy moves through the climate system. The Sun heats the equatorial tropics more than the polar regions. Therefore, the amount of solar irradiance received by a certain region is unevenly distributed. As the energy seeks equilibrium across the planet, it drives interactions in Earth's climate system, i.e., Earth's water, ice, atmosphere, rocky crust, and all living things. The result is Earth's climate.
Earth's energy budget depends on many factors, such as atmospheric aerosols, greenhouse gases, surface albedo, clouds, and land use patterns. When the incoming and outgoing energy fluxes are in balance, Earth is in radiative equilibrium and the climate system will be relatively stable. Global warming occurs when earth receives more energy than it gives back to space, and global cooling takes place when the outgoing energy is greater.
Multiple types of measurements and observations show a warming [|imbalance] since at least year 1970. The rate of heating from this human-caused event is without precedent. The main origin of changes in the Earth's energy is from human-induced changes in the composition of the atmosphere. During 2005 to 2019 the Earth's energy imbalance averaged about 460 TW or globally.
It takes time for any changes in the energy budget to result in any significant changes in the global surface temperature. This is due to the thermal inertia of the oceans, land and cryosphere. Most climate models make accurate calculations of this inertia, energy flows and storage amounts.

Definition

Earth's energy budget includes the "major energy flows of relevance for the climate system". These are "the top-of-atmosphere energy budget; the surface energy budget; changes in the global energy inventory and internal flows of energy within the climate system".

Earth's energy flows

In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the Earth, it maintains a relatively constant temperature because, as a whole, there is little net gain or loss: Earth emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation to space about the same amount of energy as it receives via solar insolation.
The main origin of changes in the Earth's energy is from human-induced changes in the composition of the atmosphere, amounting to about 460 TW or globally.

Incoming solar energy (shortwave radiation)

The total amount of energy received per second at the top of Earth's atmosphere is measured in watts and is given by the solar constant times the cross-sectional area of the Earth corresponded to the radiation. Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional area of a sphere, the globally and yearly averaged TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 watts per square meter. Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are multi-year averages obtained from multiple satellite measurements.
Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface albedo, leaving ~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget. This amount is called the absorbed solar radiation. It implies a value of about 0.3 for the mean net albedo of Earth, also called its Bond albedo :

Outgoing longwave radiation

Energy leaves the planet in the form of outgoing longwave radiation. Longwave radiation is electromagnetic thermal radiation emitted by Earth's surface and atmosphere. Longwave radiation is in the infrared band, but the terms are not synonymous, as infrared radiation can be either shortwave or longwave. Sunlight contains significant amounts of shortwave infrared radiation. A threshold wavelength of 4 microns is sometimes used to distinguish longwave and shortwave radiation.
Generally, absorbed solar energy is converted to different forms of heat energy. Some of the solar energy absorbed by the surface is converted to thermal radiation at wavelengths in the "atmospheric window"; this radiation is able to pass through the atmosphere unimpeded and directly escape to space, contributing to OLR. The remainder of absorbed solar energy is transported upwards through the atmosphere through a variety of heat transfer mechanisms, until some of that energy is also able to escape to space, again contributing to OLR. For example, heat is transported into the atmosphere via evapotranspiration and latent heat fluxes or conduction/convection processes, as well as via radiative heat transport. Ultimately, all outgoing energy is radiated into space in the form of longwave radiation.
The transport of longwave radiation from Earth's surface through its multi-layered atmosphere is governed by radiative transfer equations such as Schwarzschild's equation for radiative transfer and obeys Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation.
A one-layer model produces an approximate description of OLR which yields temperatures at the surface and at the middle of the troposphere that are close to observed average values:
In this expression σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and ε represents the emissivity of the atmosphere, which is less than 1 because the atmosphere does not emit within the wavelength range known as the atmospheric window.
Aerosols, clouds, water vapor, and trace greenhouse gases contribute to an effective value of about. The strong temperature sensitivity maintains a near-balance of the outgoing energy flow to the incoming flow via small changes in the planet's absolute temperatures.
As viewed from Earth's surrounding space, greenhouse gases influence the planet's atmospheric emissivity. Changes in atmospheric composition can thus shift the overall radiation balance. For example, an increase in heat trapping by a growing concentration of greenhouse gases forces a decrease in OLR and a warming energy imbalance. Ultimately when the amount of greenhouse gases increases or decreases, in-situ surface temperatures rise or fall until the absorbed solar radiation equals the outgoing longwave radiation, or ASR equals OLR.

Earth's internal heat sources and other minor effects

The geothermal heat flow from the Earth's interior is estimated to be 47 terawatts and split approximately equally between radiogenic heat and heat left over from the Earth's formation. This corresponds to an average flux of 0.087 W/m² and represents only 0.027% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, being dwarfed by the of incoming solar radiation.
Human production of energy is even lower at an average 18 TW, corresponding to an estimated 160,000 TW-hr, for all of year 2019. However, consumption is growing rapidly and energy production with fossil fuels also produces an increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases, leading to a more than 20 times larger imbalance in the incoming/outgoing flows that originate from solar radiation.
Photosynthesis also has a significant effect: An estimated 140 TW of incident energy gets captured by photosynthesis, giving energy to plants to produce biomass. A similar flow of heat is released over the course of a year when plants are used as food or fuel.
Other minor sources of energy are usually ignored in the calculations, including accretion of interplanetary dust and solar wind, light from stars other than the Sun and the thermal radiation from space. Earlier, Joseph Fourier had claimed that deep space radiation was significant in a paper often cited as the first on the greenhouse effect.

Budget analysis

In simplest terms, Earth's energy budget is balanced when the incoming flow equals the outgoing flow. Since a portion of incoming energy is directly reflected, the balance can also be stated as absorbed incoming solar radiation equal to outgoing longwave radiation:

Internal flow analysis

To describe some of the internal flows within the budget, let the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere be 100 units, as shown in the accompanying Sankey diagram. Called the albedo of Earth, around 35 units in this example are directly reflected back to space: 27 from the top of clouds, 2 from snow and ice-covered areas, and 6 by other parts of the atmosphere. The 65 remaining units are absorbed: 14 within the atmosphere and 51 by the Earth's surface.
The 51 units reaching and absorbed by the surface are emitted back to space through various forms of terrestrial energy: 17 directly radiated to space and 34 absorbed by the atmosphere. The 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere are then finally radiated back to space. This simplified example neglects some details of mechanisms that recirculate, store, and thus lead to further buildup of heat near the surface.
Ultimately the 65 units are emitted as OLR. They approximately balance the 65 units absorbed from the sun in order to maintain a net-zero gain of energy by Earth.

Heat storage reservoirs

Land, ice, and oceans are active material constituents of Earth's climate system along with the atmosphere. They have far greater mass and heat capacity, and thus much more thermal inertia. When radiation is directly absorbed or the surface temperature changes, energy will flow as sensible heat either into or out of the bulk mass of these components via conduction/convection heat transfer processes. The transformation of water between its solid/liquid/vapor states also acts as a source or sink of potential energy in the form of latent heat. These processes buffer the surface conditions against some of the rapid radiative changes in the atmosphere. As a result, the daytime versus nighttime difference in surface temperatures is relatively small. Likewise, Earth's climate system as a whole shows a slow response to shifts in the atmospheric radiation balance.
The top few meters of Earth's oceans harbor more energy than its entire atmosphere. Like atmospheric gases, fluidic ocean waters transport vast amounts of energy over the planet's surface. Sensible heat also moves into and out of great depths under conditions that favor downwelling or upwelling. Scientists observe these large-scale energy transfers by measuring changes in oceanic enthalpy.
Over 90 percent of the extra energy that has accumulated on Earth from ongoing global warming since 1970 has been stored in the ocean. About one-third has propagated to depths below 700 meters. The overall rate of growth has also risen during recent decades, reaching close to 500 TW as of 2020. That led to about 14 zettajoules of heat gain for the year, exceeding the 570 exajoules of total primary energy consumed by humans by a factor of at least 20.