Naqada III
Naqada III is the last archaeological phase of the Naqada culture of ancient Egyptian prehistory. Depending on the sources, it is dated to approximately from 3325 to 3000 BC, from to, or from 3200 to 3000 BC. The period corresponds to Flinders Petrie's "Sequence Dates" SD 63–76.
It is the period during which the process of state formation, which began in Naqada II, became highly visible, with named kings heading powerful polities. Naqada III is often described as the Protodynastic Period of Egypt, and the later part of Naqada III is usually associated with Dynasty 0 to reflect the presence of kings at the head of influential states, although, in fact, the kings involved would not have been a part of a dynasty. In this period, those kings' names were inscribed in the form of serekhs on a variety of surfaces including pottery and tombs. The period was characterized by constant conflict with the people of the Nile Delta, probably for the control of valuable trade routes with the Levant.
The periodization of the Naqada Culture was originally developed by Flinders Petrie in the
early 1900s. The defined periods have evolved since then and Naqada III is now further subdivided into IIIA1, IIIA2, IIIB1, IIIB2, IIIC1, IIIC2, and IIID subperiods.
History
The Protodynastic Period in ancient Egypt was characterised by an ongoing process of political unification, culminating in the formation of a single state to begin the Early Dynastic Period. Furthermore, it is during this time that the Egyptian language was first recorded in hieroglyphs. There is also strong archaeological evidence of Egyptian settlements in southern Canaan during the Protodynastic Period, which are regarded as colonies or trading entrepôts.Archaeologists Pierre de Miroschedji and Moain Sadeq hypothesise that the Egyptian activity in the Levant of this period can be classified in three parts: an area of permanent settlement including Tell es-Sakan and En Besor; an area extending north along the coast of seasonal habitation, and beyond this to the east and further north was an area of interaction between the Egyptians and the Canaanites.
State formation began during this era and perhaps even earlier. Various small city-states arose along the Nile. Centuries of conquest then reduced Upper Egypt to three major states: Thinis, Naqada, and Nekhen. Sandwiched between Thinis and Nekhen, Naqada was the first to fall. Thinis then conquered Lower Egypt. Nekhen's relationship with Thinis is uncertain, but these two states may have merged peacefully, with the Thinite royal family ruling all of Egypt. The Thinite kings were buried at Abydos in the Umm el-Qa'ab cemetery.
Early Egyptologists such as Flinders Petrie were proponents of the Dynastic race theory which hypothesised that the first Egyptian chieftains and rulers were themselves of Mesopotamian origin, but this view has been abandoned among modern scholars.
The "City of Gold'
"Naqada" literally means "City of Gold", reflecting the exceptional wealth of the eastern desert region in gold, and the strategic position of Naqada and its facing town of Koptos for the commerce of that gold. The exploitation of precious metals from the Eastern Desert, and the development of floodplain agriculture creating surpluses which could generate demand for a variety of crafts, made the region especially advanced in term of economic specialization and diversification, much more advanced than the regions of contemporary Lower Egypt. Imports from Mesopotamia appear to have been quite intensive during the late Gerzean period, and correspond to the Protoliterate b and c cultures of Mesopotamia.Naqada was at the center of the developing trade of gold from the eastern desert of Egypt. This may have stimulated the direct involvement of Mesopotamian traders, who, accompanied by artists and various skilled personnel, may have introduced Mesopotamian styles and practices. The exploitation of gold may also have stimulated the development of the first organized proto-state structures in Egypt.
Gold production is documented through the creation of gold artifacts, going as far back as about 3500 BC. The extraction of gold occurred mainly in the older and younger granites of the Eastern Desert, through open pits and moderate underground digging.
Golden figurines
At Tell el-Farkha, on the Eastern Kom, a deposit of "gold foil, carnelian and ostrich eggshell beads of a necklace, and two large flint knives " was found. When reconstructed the gold fragments formed two statues of naked men with lapis lazuli eyes. The statuettes represent standing naked males. The tall one is 60cm, and the other one 30cm tall. The statues featured "large protruding ears, unnaturally large phalluses, and carefully modeled fingernails and toenails". The lapis lazuli came from what is now modern day Afghanistan. The figurines represent bald individuals, with no facial hair and large protruding ears. They are equipped with very large phallus sheaths, one of them decorated with a carved band around it. The larger figure also has a necklace. The core of the statuettes was made of wood, which was covered with thin sheets of gold fastened by 140 golden rivets.These characteristics follow the stylistic conventions of Predynastic Egyptian art, similar to the Mahasna statuette, or the Ashmolean Museum Mac Gregor Man statuette. The golden statuettes most probably depict a Predynastic ruler and his son during the heb-sed festival, and they probably adorned a shrine in the Western Kom area. They are thought to belong to the Naqada IIIB period, or possibly even Naqada IIIA. They are thought to be the oldest known depictions of Ancient Egyptian rulers.
Northern expansion
The people of Naqada II and Naqada III seem to have expanded northward into Lower Egypt, replacing the Maadian culture. Maadi was first conquered during Nadaqa II c-d. The cultures of Lower Egypt were replaced by Upper Egypt and Naqada culture by the end of Naqada II c. 3200 BC. The Maadian culture of Buto, Tell Ibrahim Awad, Tell el-Rub'a, and Tell el-Farkha were vacated, giving way to the Naqada III culture.Technological innovations
Naqada III extended all over Egypt and was characterized by some notable firsts:- The first hieroglyphs
- The first graphical narratives on palettes
- The first regular use of serekhs
- Possibly the first example of irrigation
- The invention of sail navigation
Decorative cosmetic palettes
During Naqada III, the highly decorated ivory sculptures of Naqada II were replaced by decorated greywacke palettes. Many notable decorative palettes are dated to Naqada III, such as the Hunters Palette. During the Naqada IIIA period, cosmetic palettes are dominated by rectangular shapes.Penile sheaths
Numerous male statuettes from the Naqada I-III period are shown displaying penile sheaths, a characteristic attribute of many hunter-gatherer societies. Such depictions appear in Hierakonpolis, Abydos, on the Gebel el-Arak Knife, or on the golden statuettes of Tell el-Farkha. They were held in place by leather strings tied at the waist, and possible at the bottom as well.It has been suggested that many of the decorated rhinoceros tusks also found in tombs of the period may be the very penile sheaths depicted in these statuettes, or at least symbolic representations of them. Penile sheath may also have been used for medical reasons, in a mistaken attempt to avoid schistosomiasis and contamination by cercariae.
Pottery vessels
Naqada II pottery mainly uses two types of clay. First, a grey clay from the alluvium of the Nile, which is rich in ferrous oxide and becomes red to brown upon firing in an oxidizing environment. Second, a clay of limestone origin or marly, obtained from regular rivers and wadis, which is yellowish to white due to its high content in calcium, and becomes creamy upon firing. Most potteries of the Naqada III period used the second type.Naqada III practiced to various extents most of the types of pottery known from the Naqada period, but most of the production tended to be monochrome, with sometimes simple designs in relief. Naqada III was categorized chronologically by Petrie from SD 63 to 76:
- Late ware : a type of pottery in creamy marly clay, which became the majority of Naqada III production
- Decorated ware : a type of pottery with beige to pink surface and ochre to brown paintings, which disappeared with Naqada III
- Black Top ware : polished red body with black top, an archaic type known since the Badarian
- Fancy Forms ware : Pottery with fancy shapes or animal-shaped
- Polished Red ware : red polished pottery
- Rough ware : a type of pottery with vegetal particles which burn upon firing and create an uneven surface.
- Wavy-handled ware : type of vessels with wavy handles, becoming cylindrical
Dynasty 0
The Egyptian rulers of the period belong to the so-called "Dynasty 0", and may have ruled over some parts of Upper Egypt. They include rather obscure rulers such as Crocodile, Iry-Hor, Ka, and perhaps by the king Scorpion II, whose name may refer to, or be derived from, the goddess Serket, a special early protector of other deities and the rulers.. The period ended with the rise of Narmer, who became the first king of the First Dynasty and the first unifier of Egypt.For Upper Egypt in the south, the following Dynasty 0 rulers have been listed: A, Finger Snail, Fish, Elephant, Stork, Bull, Scorpion I, Crocodile, Iry-Hor, Ka, Scorpion II, Narmer / Menes
For Lower Egypt in the north, the following Dynasty 0 rulers have been listed: Hedju Hor, Ny-Hor, Ni-Neith, Hat-Hor, Pu, Hsekiu, Khayu, Tiu, Thesh, Neheb, Wazner, Mekh, Double Falcon, ''Wash''