Pali literature


Pali literature is concerned mainly with Theravada Buddhism, of which Pali is the traditional language. The earliest and most important Pali literature constitutes the Pāli Canon, the authoritative scriptures of Theravada school.
Pali literature includes numerous genres, including Suttas, Vinaya, Abhidhamma, poetry, history, philology, hagiography, scriptural exegesis, and meditation manuals.

History

The Pali language is a composite language which draws on various Middle Indo-Aryan languages.
Much of the extant Pali literature is from Sri Lanka, which became the headquarters of Theravada for centuries. Most extant Pali literature was written and composed there, though some was also produced in outposts in South India. Most of the oldest collection of Pali Literature, the Pali Canon, was committed to writing in Sri Lanka at about the first century BCE.
At around the start of the common era, some of the earliest Pali commentaries and exegetical manuals were written, mainly the Suttavibhanga, Niddesa, Nettipakarana and Petakopadesa. Other works like the Cariyapitaka, the Buddhavamsa and the Apadana may also belong to this post-Asokan period.
During the first millennium, Pali literature consisted of two major genres: histories and commentaries. The histories include the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa, which are verse chronicles of Buddhism in India and Sri Lanka.
The commentarial works include the writings of Buddhaghosa, who wrote the influential Visuddhimagga along with various commentaries on the Pali Canon. Several other commentators worked after Buddhaghosa, such as Buddhadatta, Ananda, Dhammapala and other anonymous commentators which we do not know by name.
The reform period between the 10th to 13th centuries saw an explosion of new Pali literature. Part of the impulse behind these literary efforts was the fear that warfare on the island could lead to the decline of Buddhism. This literature includes the work of prominent scholars such as Anuruddha, Sumangala, Siddhattha, Sāriputta Thera, Mahākassapa of Dimbulagala and Moggallana Thera.
They worked on compiling subcommentaries to the Tipitaka, grammars, summaries and textbooks on Abhidhamma and Vinaya such as the influential Abhidhammattha-sangaha of Anuruddha. They also wrote kavya style Pali poetry and philological works. Their work owed much to the influence of Sanskrit grammar and poetics, particularly as interpreted by the Sri Lankan scholar Ratnamati. During this period, these new Pali doctrinal works also show an increasing awareness of topics found in Sanskrit Buddhist Mahayana literature.
From the 15th century onwards, Pali literature has been dominated by Burma, though some has also been written in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, as well as Ceylon. This Burmese literature has in turn been dominated by writings directly or indirectly concerned with the Abhidhamma Pitaka, the part of the Canon variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics etc.

Canonical and post-canonical Pali literature

Pali Tipitaka

The earliest and most important Pali literature constitutes the Pali Tipitaka, the main scripture collection of the Theravada school. These are of Indian origin, and were written down during the reign of Vattagamani Abhaya in Sri Lanka.
The Tipitaka, also known as Pali Canon, is divided into three "baskets" :
  1. Vinaya Piṭaka
  2. #Suttavibhaṅga: Pāṭimokkha and commentary
  3. #Khandhaka: 22 chapters on various topics
  4. #Parivāra: analyses of rules from various points of view
  5. Sutta Piṭaka, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to his disciples.
  6. # Digha Nikāya, the "long" discourses.
  7. # Majjhima Nikāya, the "middle-length" discourses.
  8. # Saṁyutta Nikāya, the "connected" discourses.
  9. # Anguttara Nikāya, the "numerical" discourses.
  10. # Khuddaka Nikāya, the "minor collection".
  11. Abhidhamma Piṭaka. According to K.R. Norman, "It is clear that the Abhidhamma is later than the rest of the canon."
  12. # Dhammasaṅganī
  13. # Vibhaṅga
  14. # Dhātukathā
  15. # Puggalapaññatti
  16. # Kathāvatthu
  17. # Yamaka
  18. # Paṭṭhāna

Paracanonical texts

Paracanonical texts are works written after the closure of the canon. One of the collections of paracanonical books is the quasi-canonical texts.

Quasi-canonical texts

"Quasi-canonical texts" is used by Western scholars to refer to various texts on the fringes of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism, usually to refer to the following texts sometimes regarded as included in the Pali Canon's Khuddaka Nikaya The first two of these texts are present in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Burmese and Sri Lankan Tipitaka but not in the Thai edition. The third text is included only in the Burmese edition. The fourth text is included only in the Sinhalese edition. They are also not mentioned by Buddhaghosa as being part of the canon.
  1. Nettipakarana ''- "The Book of Guidance", a work on exegesis and hermeneutics
  2. Petakopadesa - "Instruction on the Pitaka", another text on exegesis and hermeneutics
  3. Milindapañha - The Questions of King Milinda. A dialogue between a monk and an Indo-Greek king.
  4. Suttasaṃgaha -'' A collection of important suttas from the Tipitaka
In the common editions known to the modern Buddhist world, the Nettipakaraṇa, Peṭakopadesa, and Milindapañha are generally considered to be part of the Khuddaka Nikāya of the Sutta Piṭaka.

Other paracanonical texts

Other paracanonical works include the commentaries, the Visuddhimagga, and the historical works.. There are also apocryphal suttas like:
  1. Mahādibbamanta
  2. Unhisavijayasutta
  3. Ākāravattārasutta
  4. ''Mahameghasutta''

Commentaries

A collection of Pali Commentaries were written in Sri Lanka by various authors, such as Buddhagosa, Dhammapala, Mahanama, Upasena, and Buddhadatta. Buddhagosa writes that he based his commentaries on older works which were brought to Sri Lanka when Buddhism first arrived there, and were translated into Sinhalese. K.R. Norman has written that there is evidence that some parts of the commentaries are very old.

Sub-commentaries

Sub-commentarial works called Tikas are secondary commentaries, that is to say, commentaries on the Atthakathas. Dhammapala is one early author of tikas. He is particularly known for his Paramatthamañjusa, a sub-commentary on the Visuddhimagga.

Classical commentarial and doctrinal works (5th century)

Buddhaghosa

Visuddhimagga – A comprehensive and influential manual of Theravāda doctrine and meditation practice. Considered Buddhaghosa’s magnum opus.

Buddhadatta

Vinayavinicchaya – A verse summary of the first four books of the Vinaya.Uttaravinicchaya – A verse summary of the Parivāra, the final book of the Vinaya.Abhidhammavatara – An early effort at summarizing the doctrines in the Abhidhamma.Ruparupa-vibhaga – A short manual on Abhidhamma.

Summaries and manuals on monastic discipline

Khuddasikkha and Mulasikkha – Brief verse summaries on monastic discipline, used for basic training.Simalankara – A treatise dealing with monastic boundaries.

Acariya Anuruddha

Abhidhammattha-sangaha – A concise and popular summary of the Abhidhamma, widely used as an introductory text.Namarupa-pariccheda – A verse introduction to the Abhidhamma.Paramattha-vinicchaya – Attributed to Acariya Anuruddha; K.R. Norman suggests it may be the work of a different Anuruddha.

Other authors

Saccasankhepa – By Culla-Dhammapala, a short treatise on Abhidhamma .Khemappakarana – By the nun Khema, a brief manual on the Abhidhamma.Mohavicchedani – By Mahakassapa of the Chola dynasty, a guide to the matikas of the seven books of the Abhidhamma.Nāmacāradīpikā – By Chappata.

Lay instruction and applied teachings

Upasaka-janalankara – By Sihala Acariya Ananda Mahathera, a manual on the Buddha's teachings for lay disciples .Bhesajjamanjusa – A medical treatise from Sri Lanka integrating Buddhist knowledge.

Esoteric and meditation manuals

Yogāvacara's manual – A Sri Lankan meditation manual associated with Esoteric Theravāda.Amatākaravaṇṇanā – An extensive esoteric meditation manual compiled by Kandyan Sinhalese students of Thai esoteric masters.

Historical chronicles

The following include various Buddhist historical chronicles, organized by theme and time period:

Classical Sri Lankan chronicles

Dipavamsa – "The Island Chronicle", the earliest extant Sri Lankan chronicle.Mahavamsa – "The Great Chronicle", composed by the monk Mahanama.Culavamsa – "The Lesser Chronicle", a continuation of the Mahavamsa.Vamsatthappakasini – A 6th-century commentary on the Mahavamsa.

Regional variants

Cambodian Mahavamsa – A local expansion of the Mahavamsa, nearly double in length and including additional narratives.

Monument and relic chronicles

Thupavamsa – By Vacissara, a chronicle of the Great Stupa in Anuradhapura.Dathavamsa – By Dhammakitti, focuses on relics such as the tooth relic.Chakesadhatuvamsa – A 14th-century history of the six stupas enshrining the Buddha’s hair relics.

Biographical and poetic chronicles

Samantakutavannana – By Vedehathera, a poem in 796 stanzas on the Buddha’s life and visits to Sri Lanka.Hatthavanagalla-viharavamsa – A 13th-century biography of King Sirisanghabodhi.

Cosmological texts

Candasuriyagati-dīpani – A Buddhist cosmological treatise.Loka-dīpanī – Another text on Buddhist cosmology.Lokapaññatti – A work on Theravāda cosmology, largely derived from the Sanskrit Lokaprajñapti.

Literary and ecclesiastical histories

Saddhamma-sangaha – By Dhammakitti Mahasami, a literary and ecclesiastical history of Buddhism.Saddhammasangaha – A separate work providing historical and bibliographical information on Buddhist texts and authors.

Later period texts

  • Sandesakatha - Late historical text dealing in part with the relationship between Sri Lanka and Burma in medieval times.

Poetry (mostly hagiographical)

Most Sinhalese Pali poetry is in kavya style, heavily influenced by Sanskrit literary conventions.

Early and classical poetry

Mahabodhivamsa – By Upatissa, a historical poem focused on the Bodhi Tree and its veneration.Telakaṭāhagāthā – "The Oil-Cauldron Verses", a collection of Sri Lankan poems centered on a monk thrown into boiling oil for his convictions.Jinalankara – By Buddharakkhita, a 278-verse poem on the life of the Buddha.Anagatavamsa – By Mahākassapa of the Cola region, a narrative on the coming Buddha, Maitreya.Dasabodhisattuppattikatha – "Birth Stories of the Ten Bodhisattas".Dasabodhisattuddesa – Another collection of verses detailing the births of the Ten Bodhisattas.

Medieval to early modern period

Jinacarita – By Medhankara, a 472-verse poetic biography of the Buddha.Pajjamadhu – By Buddhapiya Dipankara, a poem on the beauty and virtues of the Buddha.Samantakutavannana – By Vedeha, a poetic life story of the Bodhisatta Siddhattha and his visits to Sri Lanka.Pañcagatidīpanī – A didactic poem describing the five types of rebirth in Buddhist cosmology.Saddhammopāyana – A devotional work comprising 629 verses in praise of the Dhamma.

Modern period

Jinavamsadipani – By Moratuve Medhananda Thera, an epic 2000-verse poem narrating the Buddha’s life and teachings.Mahākassapacarita – By Widurapola Piyatissa, a 1500-verse poem on the life of Mahākāśyapa, one of the Buddha’s chief disciples.

Edifying tales

A genre which consists of stories in mixed prose and verse, often focusing on the advantages of giving.DasavatthuppakaranaSihalavatthuppakaranaSahassavatthuppakarana
  • ''Rasavahini''

Linguistic works

Works on Pali language, mostly grammar.Abhidhānappadīpikā, Pali dictionary composed in the 12th century by the Sinhalese bhikkhu Moggallāna Thera.Kaccāyana-vyākarana, Date is unknown but after Buddhaghosa. It's the earliest and most influential grammar of Pali.
  • Nyasa, or Mukhamattadipani by Vimalabuddhi, a commentary on Kaccayana's Grammar.
  • Suttaniddesa or Nyasapradipa by Chapata or Saddhammajoti-pala
  • Kaccayana-sara, ab abridgement of Kaccayana's Grammar written by Dhammananda
  • Rupasiddhi, a re-arrangement of Kaccāyana-vyākarana
  • Balavatara, a re-arrangement of Kaccāyana-vyākarana
  • Moggallayana-vyakarana a.k.a. Saddalakkhana, and the auto-commentary Moggallayanapañcika is a new Pali grammar by Moggallana who created a new school of grammar c. 12th century.
  • Saddanīti, by Aggavaṃsa of Arimaddana, an influential Pali grammar; Burma. K.R. Norman calls it "the greatest of extant Pali grammars." It draws on Kaccayana and Panini.

Poetics and prosody

Works on poetics and prosody.Subodhalankara of Sangharakkhita, a work on poeticsVuttodaya, a work on Pali meter by SangharakkhitaSambandhacinta by Sangharakkhita, a work on verbs and syntax

Non-canonical Jataka collections

These are jataka collections that are outside of the Pali Canon:

Gāthās and devotional material

Anthologies

Anthologies of various texts on different topics:

Burmese Pali literature

Dhammasattha - A Southeast Asian genre of Buddhist law
  • Dhammaniti, Lokaniti, Maharahaniti, and Rajaniti, collections of aphorisms of worldly wisdom.
  • Gandhavamsa - Catalog of ancient Buddhist commentators.
  • Sāsanavaṃsa, written in 1861 by Paññasami, a history of Buddhism, including Burmese Buddhism.
  • Sima-vivada-vinichaya-katha Visuddhiñana-katha by Mahasi Sayadaw, originally in Burmese, translated to Pali.

Thai Pali literature