Okinawa Prefecture
Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan. It consists of three main island groups—the Okinawa Islands, the Sakishima Islands, and the Daitō Islands—spread across a maritime zone approximately 1,000 kilometers east to west and 400 kilometers north to south. Despite a modest land area of 2,281 km2, Okinawa's territorial extent over surrounding seas makes its total area nearly half the combined size of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. Of its 160 islands, 49 are inhabited. The largest and most populous island is Okinawa Island, which hosts the capital city, Naha, as well as major urban centers such as Okinawa, Uruma, and Urasoe. The prefecture has a subtropical climate, characterized by warm temperatures and high rainfall throughout the year. People from the Nansei Islands, including Okinawa, the Sakishima Islands, and parts of Kagoshima Prefecture, are often collectively referred to as Ryukyuans. However, there are significant cultural and customary differences between individual islands and even between local communities.
Historically the center of the Ryukyu Kingdom, Okinawa long served as a maritime trading hub and cultural gateway; the kingdom participated in the Chinese tributary system—maintaining formal tribute relations with the Ming and Qing—and retained distinct statehood until it was incorporated into Japan as Okinawa Prefecture in 1879 following the Ryukyu Disposition. After the Battle of Okinawa, the islands were under U.S. administration until reversion to Japan in 1972, and today host a large share of U.S. military facilities in Japan, a continuing source of local and national debate. A small but persistent independence movement exists, reflecting Okinawa's distinct historical trajectory and identity.
Over time, Okinawa developed its own distinctive traditions, cuisine, and performing arts. Today, Okinawan music, characterized by the distinctive sanshin instrument, and festivals such as Eisa have gained popularity across the country. The islands are also the birthplace of karate, later popularized on the Japanese mainland and worldwide. The prefectural economy is predominantly service-based, with tourism and related services as major drivers, while manufacturing plays a comparatively small role.
History
Prehistoric and ancient history
The prehistoric history of Okinawa differs significantly from that of mainland Japan. Prior to written records, it is generally divided into two periods: the Paleolithic era and the Shellmidden period. The earliest evidence of human activity in Okinawa includes the Yamashita Cave Man, dating back approximately 32,000 years, and the Minatogawa Man from around 18,000 years ago. In 2012, the world's oldest known fishhook was discovered in the Sakitari Cave site in Nanjo City, Okinawa Prefecture.The Shellmidden Period in Okinawa roughly corresponds to the Jōmon through Heian periods of mainland Japan, with a chronological gap of about 10,000 years from the Paleolithic era.
At the Kogachibaru Shell Mound, archaeological findings include pottery styles such as Sobata and Ichiki, which originate from the Kyushu region, obsidian from Koshidake in Saga Prefecture, and jade from Itoigawa in Niigata Prefecture used for ornamental pendants. These discoveries indicate that close exchanges with Kyushu were already taking place during this time.
However, by the middle of the Shellmidden Period, Okinawan pottery began to exhibit clearly localized characteristics. Examples include the Iha and Ogido pottery styles, which are distinct to the region.
In contrast to the Shellmidden culture of Okinawa Island, which was influenced primarily by mainland Japan, the prehistoric cultures of the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands were shaped more significantly by southern cultures, including those from the Philippines.
Gusuku and Sanzan periods
From the 12th century onward, Okinawa entered the Gusuku period, characterized by the development of an agrarian society. During this time, populations moved from coastal dunes to more fertile limestone plateaus, leading to significant population growth and the beginnings of international trade. Local chieftains, known as Aji, constructed fortified residences called Gusuku to protect their territories and expand their influence through foreign trade. Gusuku sites are found throughout the Ryukyu Islands, from the Amami Islands in the north to the Yaeyama Islands in the south, with estimates ranging from 300 to 400 sites in total. Early Gusuku were generally small, covering about 1,000 square meters, but larger fortresses appeared in later periods.By the 14th century, Okinawa Island was divided into three polities, marking the beginning of the Sanzan period. These were the Kingdom of Hokuzan, centered at Nakijin Castle in the north; the Kingdom of Chūzan, centered at Urasoe Castle in the central region; and the Kingdom of Nanzan, centered at Ōzato Castle in the south.
According to official histories compiled by the royal government in Shuri—such as the Chūzan Seikan, Chūzan Seifu, and Kyūyō—the first royal lineage of Ryukyu was the legendary Tenson dynasty. After internal conflict during its 25th generation, a local Aji named Shunten from Urasoe was supported by the people, quelled the unrest, and was crowned as the first king of the Ryukyu Kingdom. However, these early historical accounts are heavily mythologized, and even if Shunten was a real historical figure, he likely ruled only the Urasoe area as an Aji. The Shunten dynasty lasted for three generations before being overthrown by the Eiso dynasty, which in turn was replaced by the Satto dynasty after four generations. By this time, Okinawa Island had effectively split into the three kingdoms of Hokuzan, Chūzan, and Nanzan.
In 1372, the Ming dynasty of China dispatched an envoy, Yang Zai, to the Kingdom of Chūzan, requesting the king, Satto, to enter into a tributary relationship. Satto agreed, and soon after, the kings of Nanzan and Hokuzan also began paying tribute to the Ming court, bringing all three kingdoms into the Chinese tributary system.
In 1406, the Aji of Sashiki, Shō Hashi, overthrew King Bunei of the Satto dynasty and installed his father, Shō Shishō, as king, establishing the First Shō Dynasty. In 1416, Shō Hashi capitalized on dissatisfaction among the Aji of Hokuzan with their king, Hananchi, and conquered the kingdom. The Kingdom of Nanzan, plagued by internal conflict under the rule of Tarumoi, was defeated by Shō Hashi in 1429, completing the unification of Okinawa Island under the Chūzan Kingdom.
Ryukyu Kingdom period
The First Shō Dynasty experienced political instability due to the early deaths of several kings. After the death of the fifth king, Shō Kinpuku, a succession dispute known as the Shirii-Tumui rebellion broke out. Order was eventually restored when Shō Taikyū ascended as the sixth king. During his reign, another major conflict, the Gosamaru–Amawari rebellion, occurred, but Shō Taikyū was able to suppress it. His successor, King Shō Toku, was known as a tyrant. After his death, a coup led by royal officials installed the high-ranking bureaucrat Kanemaru as king. Kanemaru took the royal name Shō En, founding the Second Shō Dynasty.Under the rule of the third king of the dynasty, Shō Shin, a centralized administration was firmly established. Shō Shin relocated powerful regional chieftains to the capital of Shuri and appointed state officials to govern the provinces directly. The territorial extent of the Ryukyu Kingdom also expanded, covering the area from the Amami Islands in the north to the Yaeyama Islands in the south. Culturally, this era was a golden age for the kingdom, with significant development in the arts, religion, and architecture.
By actively participating in the tribute system with the Ming dynasty, the Ryukyu Kingdom received preferential treatment and became a key intermediary trading hub in East Asia. Many of the tribute goods presented to China originated from Japan, while Chinese goods were exported to Japan through Ryukyu. Southeast Asia, China, and Japan were Ryukyu's primary trade partners, and the kingdom also maintained trade with the Korean Peninsula. However, Ryukyu's significance as a trade hub declined in the 16th century with the Age of Discovery, as Portuguese and Spanish merchants entered East Asia, and China gradually relaxed its maritime prohibition policies.
The Miyako Islands and Yaeyama Islands had long been politically fragmented. In 1474, local strongman Nakasone Toyomiya of Miyako Island submitted to the Ryukyu Kingdom, bringing the island under centralized control. In 1500, Ryukyuan forces defeated Oyake Akahachi, the ruler of Ishigaki Island. In 1522, Nakasone Toyomiya conquered Yonaguni Island, completing the unification of the Yaeyama Islands under Ryukyuan rule. The Amami Islands in the north also came under Ryukyuan control by 1466.
In 1609, the Shimazu clan of the Satsuma Domain invaded the Ryukyu Kingdom in what is known as the Invasion of Ryukyu. King Shō Nei surrendered, and the kingdom became a vassal state under Satsuma's control. The Amami Islands were ceded to Satsuma as part of the settlement. While Ryukyu was partially integrated into Japan's feudal han system, it continued to function as a nominally independent kingdom and maintained its tributary relationship with China.Ryukyuan sovereignty was maintained since complete annexation would have created a conflict with China. The Satsuma clan earned considerable profits from trade with China during a period in which foreign trade was heavily restricted by the shogunate. Although Satsuma maintained strong influence over the islands, the Ryukyu Kingdom maintained a considerable degree of domestic political freedom for over two hundred years.
In the mid-17th century, the Ryukyuan reformer Haneji Chōshū implemented significant political and social reforms promoting pro-Japanese policies. In the mid-18th century, Sai On, a statesman and scholar, continued these reforms and greatly improved the internal administration of the kingdom.
In 1816, two British ships visited Ryukyu but made no demands for trade or missionary activity. In 1844, France became the first European country to officially request trade with Ryukyu. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States East India Squadron stopped in Ryukyu prior to his negotiations with the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan.