Muslim Hebraists
Muslim Hebraists are Muslims who use the Bible, generally referred to in Qur'anic studies as the Tawrat and the Injil, to interpret the Qur'an. Muslim Hebraists allow intertextual studies between the Islamic holy books, and incorporate biblical material in Qur'anic exegesis, often exploring the Qur'an's allusions to biblical narratives and concepts that are presented without full explanation. This differs from scholarly conventions which only uses the Bible for polemic or apologetic purposes.
The Islamic methodology of refers to interpreting the Qur'an with/through the Bible. This approach adopts canonical Arabic versions of the Bible, including the Tawrat and the Injil, both to illuminate and to add exegetical depth to the reading of the Qur'an.
History
In the early centuries of Islam, Biblical texts were more commonly used by Muslims to benefit Islamic arguments than criticized for being corrupted, a practice that contradicts widespread contemporary views. The companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Ubayy ibn Ka'b, received compliments and praises from Muhammad, and was competent in the Torah, the Gospel, and the Qur'an. Similarly, the Yememite Jewish Muslim convert Ka'b al-Ahbar taught Jewish traditions and explained the verses of the Qur'an and related them to the Torah. He also taught the Torah in the Mosque of Medina. The number of companions of Muhammad who asked Ka'b of the meaning of the verses of the Qur'an included Umar ibn Al-Khattab, Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Hurayra, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, and Ibn Abbas. Known as "the owner of the two books", Ka'b was a salaried preacher under Caliph Uthman ibn Affan.Among Ka'b's views was combining the directions of prayer of Moses and Muhammad when in Jerusalem. He argued that while praying in Jerusalem in the direction of Mecca, a Muslim had to direct himself at the same time to the Rock.
One of the earliest Muslims to make use of biblical material in Arabic translation was the polymath and Mu'tazilite theologian al-Jahiz, who wrote "Al-Radd ʿalā al-Naṣārā". In it, he asserted that the text of the extant Hebrew Bible was trustworthy and a more reliable source than the Christian Gospels. He also discredited Jewish translations of the Old Testament as a source for Christian arguments that Jesus was the literal Son of God, and asserted that the anthropomorphizing content of existing Jewish versions resulted from poor translation.
In the 11th century a much greater emphasis on the corruption of the Bible took hold, primarily through Ibn Hazm, though views of both the utility and corruption of the Bible continued into the ensuing centuries. However, the renowned Muslim philosopher and physician Ibn Sina, who lived during the time of Ibn Hazm, challenged this view and wrote of the impossibility of the Bible being falsified. In the 14th century, textual corruption had become the majority view of Muslims. Some hadiths also allege textual corruption.
The 15th-century Muslim Hebraist Ibrahim ibn Umar al-Biqa'i did not prohibit the use of the Gospel or the Torah in interpreting the Qur'an. This can be seen in various verses in his tafsir titled Nazm al-Durar fi Tanasub al-Ayat wa-al-Suwar. For al-Biqa'i, quoting from the Torah, Gospel and other previous revelations of God is an act that is permitted by the Sharia. Al-Biqa'i drew extensively on the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament as sources to elucidate certain Qur'anic verses. Al-Biqa'i notably emphasized the Ten Commandments, signifying a break from previous Muslim scholarly silence. He also quoted extensively from the parables of Jesus as told in the Gospels, apparently a first in any Islamic text, in order to illustrate the wisdom and prophecy of Jesus. Al-Biqa'i also created an Islamic Diatessaron harmonizing the four Gospels with a focus on the Gospel of Mark. He most frequently took the Gospel of Matthew as the leading narrative and supplemented it with the other accounts. Al-Biqa'i believed that quoting from the previous revelations of God is only permitted in terms of stories and sagas of the past. Aside from this, al-Biqa'i favoured the use of rhetorical and logical coherence as the primary tool for interpretation of the Qur'an.
Al-Biqa'i critisized those who believed that most, or the whole of the Bible has been corrupted, describing them as excessive, extreme, arrogant and belligerent. Al-Biqa'i himself believed that corruption has tainted but a small part of the Bible, a view he also ascribed to Al-Shafi'i. For al-Biqa'i, the uncorrupted parts of the Bible were equal to the Qur'an, while the corrupted parts were similar to unauthentic hadiths. Al-Biqa'i used biblical passages that he believed aligned with the Qur'an to clarify its narratives, such as the story of Noah's flood, which did not conflict with the Qur'anic version. In contrast, he rejected the Torah's account of Abraham's sacrifice, believing that it contradicted with the Qur'anic narrative.
Intellectual figures who impacted al-Biqa'i's work included al-Haralli and al-Asbahani. Al-Biqa'i also defended the use of quoting the Gospels and the Torah due to the consensus of the Muslim community. He said that the tradition of intertextual quoting between the revelations of God or more specifically quoting the Torah and the Gospel, has become commonplace in the Muslim world. He also revealed that the tradition of quoting has become ijma' sukuti. This was evidenced by the number of commentaries that practiced quotation, including Tafsir al-Kashshaf written by al-Zamakhshari, and Tafsir al-Kabir authored by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi. Al-Biqa'i also stated that the Shafi'i mufti of Mecca supported his views and praised his work and was eager to obtain a copy of his Qur'anic commentary.
According to al-Biruni, another Muslim Hebraist, the Hebrew Bible is "comparatively free from confusion" whereas the Greek Septuagint is garbled to a greater extent. Al-Biruni made a distinction between the "three copies of the Torah": the revealed Hebrew Torah of the Jews, the translated "Torah of the Seventy" which the Christians relied on, and the "Torah of the Samaritans". In his book Chronology of Ancient Nations, al-Biruni quoted from the Torah, such as from the Book of Exodus, the Book of Leviticus, and the Book of Deuteronomy, stating that they were commands and sayings of God. At the same time, he was critical of specific Christian interpretations of certain biblical passages, such as Daniel 9:24-27, dismissing both Jewish and Christian interpretations related to messianic prophecies.
Al-Biruni argued that the process of translation from the original Hebrew of the Jewish scripture to the Syriac texts of the Christians, such as the Peshitta, had altered the meaning of the words. These alterations were described as deliberate. He noticed the differences between the four gospels and detailed how Christians explained the differences between the genealogies found in the Gospel of Matthew and Luke. He also spoke of other gospels which the Marcionites, Bardesanites and Manicheans possessed and their contradictory nature. As he considered these to be different recessions of the Gospel he argued in summary that they were of little value. As a result, al-Biruni had more confidence in the Torah than in the Christian sources due to the translations the latter made from the original. Nevertheless, al-Biruni believed that the existing gospels still contained genuine parts of the Injeel and could serve as a historical source. Thus, al-Biruni quoted and paraphrased verses from the gospels, including those in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of John, one example being the quote attributed to Jesus: "Do not mind the fury of kings in speaking the truth before them. They only possess your body, but they have no power over your soul".
Al-Biruni was as unequivocal in rejecting beliefs unacceptable to Muslims as he was in condemning unfair criticism of other faiths, such as Christianity. Though he criticised the Trinity, he believed that the Torah and the Gospel use the words "father" and "son" in a metaphorical, as well as a literal, sense.
Modern period
In the 19th century, Syed Ahmad Khan wrote a Muslim commentary on the Tawrat and the Injeel titled Tabyin Al-Kalam, fit tafsir al-Tawrat wal-Injil ala millat-al-Islam, which is considered the first systematic effort at interfaith dialogue in India. The commentary aimed to bridge Muslim-Christian divides after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, highlighting commonalities, and viewing the Tawrat, the Injeel, and the Qur'an as divine. It also uses the Islamic theological discipline of Kalam to address perceived contradictions between the Qur'an, the Tawrat, and the Injeel . The commentary's impact on Muslim-Christian relations was significant, yet limited to elite intellectual circles.Syed's reformist program included a rationalist, neo-Mu'tazilite understanding of Islamic scripture, questioning much of the corpus of Hadith as either apocryphal or relevant only to prophet Muhammad's day and age, rejecting the validity of ijma, broadening the horizon of ijtihad, and interpreting Biblical scripture from a sympathetic Muslim point of view.
In the 21st century, academic approaches have demonstrated inter-textual relationships between the Qur'an and the Bible, and a growing number of Muslim scholars of the Bible accept these scriptures. These include Abdullah Saeed, Jerusha Lamptey, Farid Esack and Abdulla Galadari, who uniformly maintain that the foundational tenets of the religion of Islam are preserved and discernible in preceding scriptures. Consequently, they uphold the authoritative validity, authenticity and enduring relevance of the Tawrat, the Injeel, the Zabur and the Scrolls of Abraham.
Galadari proposed a method for Qur'anic hermeneutics that takes into account intertextual polysemy in establishing inner-Qur'anic and intra-Qur'anic-Biblical allusions by looking into the polysemous nature of the Arabic terms used and how they are related to its usage in other instances. For example, it gives insight into how the Qibla passages in the Qur'an are in direct engagement with the Shema' passages in the Book of Deuteronomy and its Talmudic commentary.