Mizo chieftainship
Mizo chieftainship refers to the system of chieftainship used by the Mizo people, which historically operated as a gerontocracy. The chieftain system persisted among the various clans and tribes from the precolonial era through to the British colonial period and Indian independence briefly. The Mizo Union advocated for abolishing chieftainship in Mizoram. The chieftainships of Mizoram were eventually disbanded with the Assam-Lushai District Act in 1954.
Society of Mizo Chiefdoms
In the administration, the chief would cooperate with various individuals to achieve his duties. Among the most important of these individuals were the chief's elders, also known as Lal upate or upa. The chief could choose who to appoint to this position and how many individuals could fit this capacity. The elders did not possess the ability to question decisions or criticise the chief and typically held meetings at the Chief's house while drinking zû. An upa who became favoured by the chief for their conduct would be granted permission to set up a hamlet near the village known as a khawper. Upa who are given headmen positions act as lesser chiefs known as Belrawh mualkil and if they're granted privileges like sachhiah, they are known as sangal khawnghrang. The most important upa is known as upamin and is perceived as the chief's deputy. The upas would also help the chief to adjudicate cases in which they would receive a portion of the salam.The brothers of the chief would also enjoy prestige by association if they did not rule any village. They were exempted from paying the rice paddy tax known as fathang. They would be given the first choice on choosing plots for jhumming and cultivation.
Influential cultivators known as ramhuals would also get the right to choose cultivation plots before other people, although they would have to give double fathang. These individuals were appointed by the chief on account of their agricultural output in order to collect larger paddy tributes. Ramhuals would select a hill suitable for jhumming in the year. This process allows the chief to make the first choice over his jhum plot. Ramhuals were second in the privilege to choose their jhum plots, often reserving the best and paying a larger paddy tax. Zalen were families exempted from paying the paddy-tribute due to their specific obligation to help the chief if the food supply declined.
The village blacksmith was known as thirdeng. This craft and skillset would be passed down hereditarily. One of the village blacksmiths would be chosen by the chief to as a personal blacksmith. The chief's blacksmith would take part in the administration with the chief and elders. Their responsibilities would include repairing tools for agriculture and other daily work. Due to this, they could also claim Thirdengsa, which is a small share of any wild animal killed by the village hunting party. The thirdeng would get remuneration by being given a basket of paddy from each household in the village. The thirdeng would also have a separate workshop known as a pum. A unique social function of the pum outside of blacksmithing was the storing of heads of enemies brought from war.
The puithiam was the priest of the village and had authority over rituals and spiritual matters. A sadawt was a private priest for the chief and was granted the ability to be shared by multiple chiefs of the same clan. The sadawts were in charge of festivals and ceremonies with knowledge of the practice of witchcraft. The sadawt typically has an assistant known as a Tlahpawi. A Tlahpawi was typically a friend of the chief. Their most common task would be scraping the skin of pigs with bamboo to file off the hair. A bawlpu was assigned to cure sicknesses and procure medicine. The bawlpu would typically prescribe animal sacrifice, which would be brought with debt or offered if already owned. The incantations used by bawlpu were closely guarded and were only imparted to the next prospective bawlpu either due to their inability to carry out their tasks or being close to death.
The val upa played an important role in traditional Mizo society. They were not appointed by the chief but elected by people based on reputation and merit towards community contribution. Their powers included managing all matters with children and young men. They operated as spokesmen to the chief on matters pertaining to bachelors in the zawlbûk. They also regulated and assented to decisions made by young men and opinionated common policy.
The Tlangau was a village crier. Their responsibility was to proclaim the chief's orders and assign what tasks or work were to be done the next day. The crier was repaid with a basket of rice from each family. The crier would often essentially function as a servant of the chief with little status in the chiefdom. While assault was punished in Mizo chiefdoms, hitting the crier for bearing bad news or tedious work was an exception with no fines.
The bawis were slaves in Mizo society under the Bawi system. There were typically four categories of slaves: Inpui Chhung Bawi, Inhrang Bawi, Chemsen Bawi and Tukluh Bawi. Inpui Chhung Bawi means a slave within a big house. This term was applied to individuals in poverty, sickness or distress who sought protection under the chief. An Inpui Chhung Bawi was expected to work within their physical capacity but would gain privileges under the chief regarding food, rice-beer and meat taxes. After being married for three years, a bawi would be considered an Inhrang Bawi. A Chemsen Bawi, which means a red knife slave, was anyone who had killed someone in a village and had sought sanctuary under the chief. A Chemsen Bawi was not obligated to work under the chief but the chief would assume paternal responsibility for the murderer's children as punishment for the criminal. Tukluh Bawi were slaves captured from war with neighbouring tribes through raids and battles. These slaves were relatively free and were allowed to live in separate houses. Mizo customs provided that these Tukluh Bawi would purchase their freedom by paying the chief a Mithun or an equivalent.
The khawchhiar is the village writer. This occupation emerged under the British administration and the influence of literacy with Christian missionaries' efforts. The khawchhiar is appointed by the superintendent and represents the British administration. Their responsibilities typically consisted of statistic registers, listing of village houses, rostering of coolie labour and supervising the list of guns in the village. All khawchhiar were exempt from coolie labour and house tax.
A Thangchhuahpa was a privileged status in the Lushai chiefdoms. To attain this status there were two distinct ways. One way was an individual was expected to throw numerous feasts known as khuangchawi for the whole community, which would make them known as Inlama Thangchhuahpa. Another way is to hunt and kill a specific number of wild animals according to customs and practice to become known as a ramlama thangchhuahpa. The animals typically required include a wild mithun, barking deer, bear, wild boar and an elephant. The killing of the animal was accompanied with an Ai ceremony to accompany him in death one day. The ramlama thangchhuahpa did not have all the privileges such as windows and shelves or the special cloth. For their prestige, these individuals would be appointed as upas, the elders who would guide the chiefs. Privileges of being a thangchhuah include a special pattern of striped clothes to denote their status, the right to build a window in their house, erect a shelf by their bed and a beam on their veranda. These privileges extended to a thangchhuah's wife and their children, who had the right to wear a thangchhuah cloth. In Lushai animism, a thangchhuah was believed to enter pialrâl or heaven straightaway.
A Pasalṭha was known as a hunter or warrior in Mizo society. Their roles were significant and central to the security of the village. Villages with many pasalṭha held more privilege and power, which would also deter raids. A pasalṭha held privilege in Mizo society and were typically granted the first sips of zû during a drinking ceremony with the chief. Under Chief Vanhnuailiana, his famous settlement of Tualte consisted of 12 famous pasalṭha. These were Vana Pa, Chawngduma, Keihawla, Tawkthiala, Zampuimanga, Chhunkeuva, Darbuta, Chalkhenga, Darruma, Darphawka, Darkuala and Zabiaka. Another famous Pasalṭha was Khuangchera who participated in the Lushai Rising.
Village Layout
Mizo villages were typically built on hills for fortification purposes from other warring tribes. To protect from high winds, many structures would be built on a slope on the hill as protection. Houses would not be built in a valley or the base of a hill, but raised three-four feet off the ground as protection from wild animals and draining of water. A house would be built of materials such as timber for walls, bamboo matting for floor and thatched grass for roofing. Each village was surrounded with a line of stockades consisting of wood and bamboo spikes on the outside. The village would have two-three principal gates made of large slabs of timbers. A block house would be built at each gateway and other locations to spot enemy parties. The village youth and men of the zawlbuk would be responsible for upkeep and repair of the stockade. Villages widely varied in sizes with the smaller villages reaching 300 households and bigger villages having as much as 3000 houses.Houses would be arranged in rows along the ridges or facing each other with streets running between them. The chief's house was traditionally built in the centre of the village with a zawlbuk to be constructed nearby. Another house for the upas was made close to the chief's house. No person in a village was permitted to build a house higher than the chief's.
A standard house was traditionally not built to last due to the Mizos being a migratory tribe for their jhumming practices. A house was raised 3–4 feet off the ground and held with bamboo or saplings as posts. For the roof they used leaves of local trees known di, thilsek, siallu, laisua. Walls would be made of timber and bamboo would be used for floor matting. Outside of the house was a platform known as leikapui which was treated as a resort for the family. Sometimes a screen will be added for shade so that women can weave and stitch.
A standard house would have decks with hollow basins designed for rice husking at the front, which would be worked with long wooden pestles. At the back of the house was a small enclosed deck serving as a storeroom. Interiors were fitted with a hearth fitted with mud or flat stones. Above this hearth was a suspended larger wooden square of grains, herbs, jerky and cured bacon. Next to the hearth was the main bed known as a Khumpui where the parents of the household sleep. This was respected and only the parents could sit or lie on it. Young unmarried men would typically sleep in the zawlbuk, a bachelor's barrack. A final section was also cleared to store water with bamboo pipes and pots, where individuals could take a bath behind a bamboo wall in a corner of the house. Windows were not built unless an individual had performed the khuangchawi ceremony, a public feast given by chiefs to well-to-do Mizos, or it was believed to bring bad fortune.