Marakkar
The Marakkars or Chonaka Mappila or Chonakar are a mercantile, panethnic group inhabiting the southwestern coast of India, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.
Today, Marakkars are found across South Asia and Southeast Asia. They are a multilingual Sunni Muslim community, speaking Tamil, Malayalam, Sinhala, Dhivehi, or Bahasa depending on their country of origin.
The Marakkars were prominent medieval traders who controlled significant Indian Ocean commerce. They are historically notable for mounting the first sustained Indian resistance against European colonialism, fighting the Portuguese Armada for a hundred-years from 1520 to 1619 under leaders including Admiral Kunjali Marakkar IV. Earlier waves of Marakkar migration to Southeast Asia contributed to the spread of Islam throughout the Indonesian Archipelago. In the early modern period, they became the first Indian community to settle in British Malaya, later forming the Jawi Peranakan ethnic group.
Kilai / Branches
There are at least four known branches of Marakkars: Pandyamandala Marakkars of coastal Tamil Nadu, Eezhamandala Marakkars of Sri Lanka, Cholamandala Marakkars of southeast asia, and Malabar Marakkars of Kerala.Marakkars of Sri Lanka
In present day, the Marakkars of Sri Lanka are called Sri Lankan Moors, compromising 10.5% of the Sri Lankan population with an aggregate population of 2,283,246. They were historically called Chonakar or Eezhamandala Marakkar. They have over a thousand-year history in the western coast of Sri Lanka, tracing their origin to the Sabaen and Dilmun traders pre-dating Islam. They are disproportionately urban, constituting 42.9% of the capital city of Colombo, and are known on the island for being a "market-dominant minority" inhabiting urban centers. They are native Tamil speakers with high degrees of Sinhalese bilingualism.Today, Chonaka Moors remain politically and economically influential on the island. Politically, they are represented in every national party and have held all major ministerial portfolios, including finance, justice, education, and trade. They have also produced five Supreme Court Justices since independence.
Economically, though their sectoral monopolies diminished following Sirimavo Bandaranaike's nationalization policies and socialist reforms, they remain influential in textiles, precious metals, pharmaceuticals, commercial real estate, import-export trade, and retail. Eastern Moor landlords, or Sonaha Poddiyar, also hold substantial tracts of the most arable paddy land in the eastern provinces.
Marakkars of Southeast Asia (Chulias)
The Chulia Marakkars of Southeast Asia, known historically as Chulias or Klings, are Tamil-speaking Muslim Marakkar merchants from the Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, and Kerala, who established permanent communities across the Malay Peninsula, Singapore, and the Indonesian archipelago.Before 1786
Chulia Marakkars were present in Southeast Asian ports from at least the 14th century, forming one of the principal trading communities at Malacca by the time of Portuguese conquest in 1511. They maintained their own settlement called Kampong Palli and were noted by Italian traveller Nicolas Conti as being "very rich, so much so that some will carry on their business in forty of their own ships."In the Malacca Sultanate, Tamil Muslims attained the highest offices of state. Bendahara Tun Ali served as the fourth prime minister, while his son Tun Mutahir became the seventh Bendahara, whose efficient administration attracted foreign traders and brought Malacca to its commercial zenith around 1500. Sultan Muhammad Syah married Tun Ali's sister, Tun Wati, producing the future Sultan Muzaffar Syah.
Following Malacca's fall, Chulia merchants dispersed to friendlier ports in Aceh, Kedah, Perak, and the Tenasserim coast. By the 17th century, they dominated trade between India and the Malay Peninsula, with Malay rulers of Kedah, Perak, Terengganu, and Johor appointing them as saudagar raja to manage royal trading activities. Prominent saudagar raja included Sidi Lebbe and Tambi Kecil in Perak, and Syed Nina, Piro Mohamed, and Raja Jamal in Kedah. Their appointment reflected Chulia strengths: connection to complex commercial networks, negotiating competence, accounting skills, shared Islamic faith with Malay rulers, and multilingual fluency.
After 1786
The British establishment of Penang and Singapore drew large-scale Chulia migration from the Coromandel Coast. Captain Francis Light estimated 1,000 Chulias in early Penang, with annual arrivals of 1,500–2,000 more. By the 1833 census, there were 7,886 Chulias in Penang and 510 in Province Wellesley. Cauder Mohideen Merican was appointed the first Kapitan Kling in 1801 and founded the Kapitan Keling Mosque, which holds one of Malaysia's largest waqf endowments.Economically, Chulia Marakkars virtually monopolised Penang's shipping and stewarding industry, providing lighters for loading and unloading cargo, earning them the nickname "Mamak Tongkang." They dominated the textile trade with Southeast Asia, exporting blue cloths, chintz, ginghams, and long cloths from Coromandel ports. When British cotton manufactures began competing from the 1820s, Chulia merchants adapted by diversifying into provision stores, jewellery, money-changing, and publishing.
Today, Chulia Marakkars remain influential in the restaurant trade, jewellery, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and retail. The nasi kandar trade, originating with Chulia rice sellers in colonial Penang, has evolved into a multi-million ringgit franchise industry. Replicas of the Nagore Dargah in Penang and Singapore commemorate the community's enduring transoceanic Sufi networks.
Jawi Peranakan
The Jawi Peranakan emerged from intermarriage between Chulia merchants and local Malay women, forming a distinct Indo-Malay community concentrated in Penang and Singapore. By the late 19th century, they had accumulated considerable wealth and status, ranking "next to the Arabs in leadership and authority within the Malay-Muslim community." Their English education facilitated employment in the colonial government as clerks, translators, and teachers.The Jawi Peranakan population in Penang grew from 3,491 in 1871 to 5,462 in 1881. Prominent families such as the Angullias and Maricans left lasting marks on the urban landscape, Angullia Park near Singapore's Orchard Road still bears the family name. Through intermarriage with Malay and Arab families, many descendants inherited titles such as Syed, Tengku, or Wan, while others adopted Malay patronymic naming conventions.
The Jawi Peranakan pioneered Malay-language journalism and publishing. According to historian William Roff, "Malay journalism, like book publication in Malay, owes its origins very largely" to this community. The Jawi Peranakkan, launched in Singapore in 1876, was the first Malay newspaper in the region and the longest-running before World War I. Its founding editor, Munsyi Mohd Said Dada Mohiddin, a Penang-born Tamil Muslim, served for twelve years until his death in 1888. The newspaper identified entirely with Malay interests, speaking always of "we Malays" and reporting Malay affairs.
Over the following three decades, Jawi Peranakan established at least twelve Malay-language newspapers: five in Singapore, five in Penang, and two in Perak.
Munshi Abdullah, of Tamil and Yemeni descent, is widely regarded as the "father of modern Malay literature." Born in Malacca and fluent in Arabic, Tamil, Hindi, and Malay, he served as scribe to Sir Stamford Raffles and translator for the London Missionary Society. His autobiography Hikayat Abdullah marked a radical departure from court literature, offering vivid, colloquial descriptions of everyday life. He is also considered the first Malayan journalist, taking Malay literature beyond folk-stories into historical description.By the early 20th century, as Malay nationalism emerged, the Jawi Peranakan increasingly identified as Malays. They established the Penang Malay Association to promote Malay interests vis-à-vis the British government. In 1946, they played a major role in founding UMNO's Penang branch, with S.M. Aidid as founder president. Second and third generation Jawi Peranakan received scholarships as Malays, entered the civil service, and served with distinction. Today, most register simply as Malays, their distinct identity having merged into the broader Malay community through social amalgamation and shared Islamic practice.
Marakkars of Kerala
In Kerala, Marakkar, known as Marikkars, are primarily concentrated in and around Malabar.According to tradition, Marakkars were originally marine merchants of Kochi who left for Ponnani in the Samoothiri Raja's dominion when the Portuguese came to Kochi. They offered their men, ships and wealth in defence of their motherland to the Samoothiri of Kozhikode – The Raja, who took them into his service and eventually became the Admirals of his fleet. They served as the naval chiefs in the Zamorin's army. Kunjali Marakkar, one of the first Keralites to rebel against the Portuguese, hailed from the Marikkar community.