Korean literati purges
Literati purges is a translation of the Korean term sahwa, whose literal meaning is "scholars' calamity." It refers to a series of political purges in the late 15th and the 16th centuries in which Sarim scholars suffered persecution at the hands of their political rivals.
The politics of the Middle Joseon Dynasty were primarily marked by a power struggle between two social groups of the yangban aristocracy. People in place were the 'Meritorious Subjects', rewarded for helping the establishment of Joseon against the former Goryeo, and subsequent accomplishments. Referred as the Hungu faction, they held the key positions in the State Council and the Six Ministries that carried out state affairs. The newcomers were the so-called Sarim, who belonged to the neo-Confucian school of Kim Chong-jik and other thinkers. The Sarim scholars generally shunned the royal court and studied neo-Confucianism in rural provinces, especially after King Sejo's usurpation of the throne in 1455.
During the reign of King Seongjong, Sarim scholars started to occupy key positions in what was known as the "Three Offices", the collective name for three government watchdog organizations: the Office of Inspector General, whose main role was to impeach government officials for corrupt or improper actions; the Office of Censors, whose function to criticize the improper actions and policies of the king and ministers; and the Office of Special Advisors who oversaw the royal library and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's questions.
Using the Samsa as a stronghold, the Sarim scholars challenged the power of the central government and the Hungu faction as a whole, impeaching them for alleged corruption or impropriety. The subsequent conflict between these two factions resulted in violent purges, having a specific pattern among the political purges that occurred in Joseon from 1453 to 1722.
While the Sarim faction lost each of the four confrontations, its moral influence continued to increase and finally eclipsed the former Hungu faction.
First literati purge of 1498
The first and second literati purges took place during the reign of Yeonsangun, successor to Seongjong. The First Literati Purge of 1498, also called Muo Sahwa, began as the personal grudge of Yi Kukdon against Kim Ilson, who once impeached him. Both were assigned to compile records related to King Seongjong's reign for Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, and Kim Ilson, a disciple of Kim Chong-jik, included the latter's writing that was critical of King Sejo's usurpation in the compilation. When Yi Kukdon, Kim Ilson's superior, found this out, he sensed a chance of revenge. Kim Ilson and other followers of Kim Chong-jik were accused of treason by the Hungu faction, many of whom originally gained power from their support of Sejo. Because Yeonsangun's lineage traced back to King Sejo, Sarim faction's view of Sejo's usurpation was considered to be treasonable. Yeonsangun - who disliked academia and was notorious for turning the Seonggyungwan, royal study hall, into his personal brothel - found an opportunity to purge the Sarim scholars and weaken the Three Offices. Kim Ilson and two others, Kwŏn Obok and ), received the death sentence by Lingchi while three were beheaded. Kim Chong-jik's remains were excavated and then beheaded, and at least 18 others were exiled. Yeonsangun ordered the entire court officials to watch Kim's execution and even ordered that those who did not attend or turned their face away be reported so that they might be punished.Second literati purge of 1504
The Second Literati Purge of 1504, or Kapja Sahwa, followed when Yeonsangun eventually discovered that his real mother was not Queen Jung-hyeon but Deposed Queen Yun, who had been executed in 1482 for poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines and scratching Seongjong's face. Yeonsangun was told about his mother's death and presented with a piece of clothing purportedly stained with her vomited blood. He responded by killing two of Seongjong's concubines, and ordering the execution of officials who had supported Yun's death. This event struck both the Hungu and the remnants of Sarim factions indiscriminately, including the instigators of the first purge. At least 36 officials were executed and the remains of eight deceased officials were mutilated. The actual death toll was much greater than 36, because the victims' families and relatives were punished as well - male members being killed and the female members enslaved. A total of 239 officials were either executed, exiled, or dismissed. Yeonsangun was eventually deposed by the remaining Hungu officials, and his half-brother Jungjong became the eleventh king of Joseon in 1506.Third literati purge of 1519
The Third Literati Purge of 1519, also called Kimyo Sahwa, is one of the most discussed literati purges in Joseon Dynasty because the Sarim faction held political power and was in the process of carrying out significant reforms at the time of their purge.Jungjong worked to remove excesses of Yeonsangun and return to Seongjong's era, but his royal authority was limited due to powerful presence of coup leaders who put him on the throne. Only when the three main leaders of coup died of old age and natural causes eight years later, Jungjong began to assert his authority and look for ways to restrain Hungu faction's power. He soon found an answer in Cho Kwangjo, a young and energetic leader of the Sarim faction, who soon became Jungjong's most trusted official. He enjoyed such a complete confidence of Jungjong that Jungjong abandoned a planned war at the sole opposition by Jo. With Jungjong's support, Cho rose to become an Inspector General only four years after entering politics in a series of unprecedented promotions and brought in many like-minded, young Sarim scholars from rural provinces to Jungjong's court. Under his leadership, the Sarim faction pushed forth a series of reforms as they established local self-government system called Hyang'yak, pursued land reforms to distribute land more equally and limit amount of land owned by the rich, promulgated Confucian beliefs widely among the public with vernacular translations, and sought to reduce the number of slaves. Cho believed that any talented people including slaves should be appointed as officials regardless of social status. According to Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace or local provinces during this time because of strict enforcement by Inspector General's Office. He was admired so much by populace that when he appeared on streets people gathered before him saying, "Our master is coming," according to famous Korean philosopher Yi I.
However, these radical reforms generated fierce hostility and resistance of the Hungu faction. Cho also made many political enemies by impeaching many of the so-called heroes of 1506 coup. Especially when Cho argued that many of the alleged contributors to 1506 coup did not actually contribute to the coup and revoked their special privileges, the Hungu faction began to plot Cho's downfall. In early 1519, there was a plot by some Hungu officials to assassinate Sarim officials, which was discovered in time.
"Cho will become king"
Cho's uncompromising character and his frequent remonstrations to Jungjong to support his radical programs also began to irritate the king. Furthermore, Consort Gyeong of Pak clan and Consort Hui of Hong clan sought to estrange Jungjong and Cho Kwangjo by often questioning Cho's loyalty and claiming that popular support was shifting to Cho. At the behest of, Minister of Rites Nam Kon, and, and other Hungu leaders, they told Jungjong that people were saying that it was actually Cho Kwangjo who ruled the country and that people wanted to make him their king. Even if Cho was not disloyal, he would not be able to stop his supporters from doing so, they said.According to the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, Nam Kon now set out to slander Cho and wrote a phrase "Chu ch'o will become the king" " with honey or sugary water on mulberry leaves so that caterpillars left behind such phrase on leaves. When two Hanja characters "chu" and "ch'o" are put together, they form a new Hanja character "cho", which happens to be Cho Kwangjo's family name. Consort Hong or Consort Pak showed the leaf to Jungjong and claimed that this was the heaven's warning that Cho would take the throne himself after eliminating Hungu faction. Jungjong, who himself rose to the throne through a coup d'état, began to distrust Cho Kwangjo.
Now feeling certain that Jungjong was sufficiently estranged from Cho, Hong Kyŏngju secretly entered the palace to warn King Jungjong that the court was filled with Cho's supporters and that no one could dare oppose him openly. When Cho petitioned Jungjong to revoke special privileges of people who falsely contributed to 1506 coup, Jungjong's suspicion was further heightened. Jungjong dispatched a secret letter to Hong Kyŏngju, expressing his fear that Cho Kwangjo would next go on to question legitimacy of the coup and then turn against him. Jungjong instructed Hungu leaders to kill Cho Kwangjo and then inform him. On November 15, 1519, Hungu leaders entered the palace secretly at night to bypass Royal Secretariat and present to the king written charges against Cho: he and his supporters deceived the king and put the state in disorder by forming a clique and abusing their positions to promote their supporters while excluding their opponents. Inspector Cho Kwangjo, Justice Minister, and six others were immediately arrested, and they were about to be killed extrajudicially without trial or even investigation. The whole event had appearance of coup d'état except that it was sanctioned by the king.
"What is their crime?"
They would have been immediately killed except that War Minister, who arrested Sarim officials, entreated that ministers should be consulted for such decision. The cabinet meeting on the following day regarding Cho's fate is described in detail in the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Most officials expressed their shock at Cho Kwangjo's arrest and Jungjong's intention to execute him. They entreated that he may have been extreme in his youthful zeal to improve the country but could not possibly have private agenda. Chief State Councillor, who often clashed with Cho and was even approached by Nam Kon for support, entreated in tears: "I have frequently witnessed horrid calamities during the reign of deposed king, but how could I imagine to see such thing again even after meeting the wise king?" Chief Council and Six Ministries jointly entreated that punishing Cho and others on such charge without evidence would be a blot on the king's reputation. Eighteen younger officials requested to the king to imprison them with Cho Kwangjo. Even, who became Justice Minister overnight and interrogated Cho, reported to the king that he was "deeply moved" by Cho's loyalty.New Inspector General Yu Un protested in even stronger terms: "If Cho Kwangjo is guilty of crime, he should be punished in open and just manner... Instead, Your Majesty is handing out such punishment after secret words by two people in the middle of night... What is so difficult about punishing few seonbis with authority of king that Your Majesty should do so secretly by sending a secret message?... If there is a crime, it should be dealt with clearly and justly, but Your Majesty appeared to trust and be friendly with your subjects on the outside while thinking of eliminating them in mind." Meanwhile, 150 Seonggyungwan students stormed the palace to protest Cho's arrest and filled the palace with shouts of entreaties, and later 240 students petitioned to claim Cho's innocence and requested to be imprisoned together. Such outpouring in Cho's support may have increased Jungjong's suspicion and anger. Later Chief State Councillor Chŏng, Deputy State Councillor and even War Minister Yi Changgon were removed from office for opposing Cho's execution.