Government shutdowns in the United States
In the United States, a government shutdown, officially known as a lapse in appropriations, occurs when funding legislation required to finance the federal government is not enacted before the next fiscal year begins. During a shutdown, the federal government curtails agency activities and services, ceases non-essential operations, furloughs non-essential workers, and retains only essential employees in departments that protect human life or property. Shutdowns can also disrupt state, territorial, and local levels of government.
Funding gaps have led to shutdowns since 1980, when Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti issued a legal opinion requiring it. This opinion was not consistently adhered to throughout the 1980s, but since 1990, all funding gaps lasting longer than a few hours have resulted in shutdowns. As of November 2025, 11 funding gaps have led to federal employees being furloughed.
The most significant historical shutdowns include the shutdown under Donald Trump's second presidency, which began on October 1, 2025, and lasted for 43 days; the 35-day shutdown of 2018–2019 during the Trump's first presidency, over expanding barriers on the U.S.–Mexico border; the 21-day shutdown of 1995–1996 during the Bill Clinton administration, over opposition to major spending cuts; and the 16-day shutdown in 2013 during the Barack Obama administration, over implementation of the Affordable Care Act. The other seven shutdowns lasted five or fewer days.
Shutdowns disrupt many government services and programs. They close national parks and other public institutions, reduce government revenue, and reduce economic growth by disrupting major services. During the 2013 shutdown, financial-rating institution Standard & Poor's said that the shutdown had "to date taken $24 billion out of the economy" and "shaved at least 0.6 percent off annualized fourth-quarter 2013 GDP growth".
Federal government
Overview
Under the separation of powers created by the United States Constitution, the appropriation and control of government funds for the United States is the sole responsibility of the United States Congress. Congress begins this process through proposing an appropriation bill aimed at determining the levels of spending for each federal department and government program. The finalized version of the bill is then voted upon by both the House of Representatives and the Senate. After it passes both chambers, it proceeds to the President of the United States to sign the bill into law.The Antideficiency Act of 1870 makes it illegal for any government official to make payments or enter into contracts in excess of congressional appropriations. Although the Act was enacted in 1870, it was not until 1980 that the Department of Justice issued legal opinions interpreting the Act as requiring government shutdowns during funding lapses.
Government shutdowns tend to occur when there is a disagreement over budget allocations before the existing cycle ends. Such disagreements can come from the president – through vetoing or threatening to veto any finalized appropriation bills they receive – or from one or both chambers of Congress, often from the political party that has control over that chamber. A shutdown can be temporarily avoided through the enactment of a continuing resolution, which can extend funding for the government for a set period, during which time negotiations can be made to supply an appropriation bill that all involved parties of the political deadlock on spending can agree upon.
A CR can be blocked by the same parties if there are issues with the content of the resolution bill that either party has a disagreement with, in which case a shutdown will inevitably occur if a CR cannot be passed by the House, Senate or president. Congress may, in rare cases, attempt to override a presidential veto of an appropriation bill or CR. Such an act requires majority support of two-thirds of both chambers.
Before 1980, many federal agencies continued to operate during shutdowns, while minimizing all nonessential operations and obligations, believing that Congress did not intend agencies to close while waiting for the enactment of annual appropriations acts or temporary appropriations. In 1980 and 1981, Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti issued two opinions that more strictly interpreted the Antideficiency Act in the context of a funding gap, along with its exceptions. The opinions stated that, with some exceptions, the head of an agency could avoid violating the Act only by suspending the agency's operations until the enactment of an appropriation. The 1981 opinion established that "a government agency may employ personal services in advance of appropriations only when there is a reasonable and articulable connection between the function to be performed and the safety of human life or the protection of property." These opinions formalized the "life and property exception" that determines which federal employees are considered "excepted" and must continue working during shutdowns without pay. However, even after the Civiletti opinions, not all funding gaps led to shutdowns. Of the nine funding gaps between 1980 and 1990, only four led to furloughs.
Members of Congress of both parties have proposed legislation to end the practice of government shutdowns, and bipartisan support has been strongest for automatic continuing appropriations at prior funding levels. One version would also require Congress and the Office of Management and Budget to remain in Washington, D.C., until new appropriations legislation is enacted, and September 2025 polling found 76% support for and 6% opposition to that approach.
In practice, analysts and federal guidance distinguish between a "full" shutdown and a "partial" shutdown. In a full shutdown, none of the 12 annual appropriations are in force, and most federal government services cease, with some exceptions. In a partial shutdown, only some of the 12 bills have been enacted, so only unfunded departments and programs shut down. For example, the 2018–19 episode was a partial shutdown because Congress had already enacted 5 of the 12 regular appropriations, and only the unfunded agencies were shut down.
Effects
While government shutdowns before 1995–1996 had very mild effects, a full federal government shutdown causes a large number of civilian federal employees to be furloughed. Such employees are forbidden even to check their e-mail, a prohibition that some agencies enforce by collecting government-issued electronic devices for the duration of the shutdown.Because of the size of the government workforce, the effects of a shutdown can be seen in macroeconomic data. During the 2013 shutdown, for example, 800,000 employees were locked out, payment was delayed to 1.3 million workers, confidence in the job market decreased for a month, and GDP growth slowed 0.1–0.2%. The loss of GDP was greater than it would have cost to keep the government open. Similarly, the 2018–19 shutdown reduced the level of GDP growth by 0.1% in the fourth quarter of 2018 and by 0.2% in the first quarter of 2019. Some of the loss could be recovered, but around $3 billion of real GDP was estimated as unrecoverable.
The complete effects of a shutdown are often clouded by missing data that cannot be collected while specific government offices are closed.
Some effects of the shutdown are difficult to measure and can linger afterward, such as destroyed scientific studies, lack of investment, and deferred maintenance costs. The 2018–2019 shutdown curtailed safety and law enforcement investigations, caused air travel delays as essential workers stopped showing up, shut down some facilities for Native Americans and tourists, and delayed regulatory approvals and immigration hearings for non-detainees.
The exact details of which government functions stop during a shutdown is determined by the Office of Management and Budget .
What stays open
- "Emergency personnel" continue to be employed, including the active duty military, federal law enforcement, doctors and nurses working in federal hospitals, and air traffic controllers.
- Certain agencies continue their day-to-day operation with minimal staffing, including the National Weather Service, the Army Corps of Engineers, and parts of NASA.
- The Department of the Interior provides specific guidance on operations during shutdowns, including which services continue and which are suspended.
- Members of Congress continue to be paid, because their pay cannot be altered except by direct law.
- Mail delivery is not affected as the United States Postal Service is self-funded and the funds are not appropriated by Congress.
- Some offices, such as the Patent and Trademark Office, can rely on operating reserves to remain open for a few months.
- Sometimes, the Washington, D.C. municipal government remains open. For example, during the 2013 shutdown, the city remained open because mayor Vincent C. Gray declared the entire municipal government to be essential.
- The Congressional Budget Office continues operations during shutdowns as it has been instructed by the House and Senate Budget Committees to continue providing support to meet the immediate needs of Congress in carrying out its constitutional functions.
What is shut down
- For the Department of Defense, at least half of the civilian workforce, and the full-time, dual-status military technicians in the US National Guard and traditional Guardsmen, are furloughed and not paid while the shutdown is in effect.
- Programs that are funded by laws other than annual appropriations acts may also be affected by a funding gap, if program execution relies on activities that receive annually appropriated funding.
Economic costs of shutdowns
The Office of Management and Budget estimated that the 2013 shutdown resulted in $2.5 billion in pay and benefits paid to furloughed employees for hours not worked, as well as roughly $10 million in penalty interest payments and lost fee collections.